Latinida linguo: Diferi inter la revizi

Kontenajo efacita Kontenajo adjuntita
Katxis (diskutez | kontributadi)
Katxis (diskutez | kontributadi)
Lineo 280:
 
Hispaniana also has vestiges of the neuter in two demonstrative adjectives: ''eso'', ''aquello'' (both meaning "that [one]"), the pronoun ''ello'' (meaning "it") and the article ''lo'' (used to intensify adjectives).
 
====Case====
Latin had an extensive case system, where all nouns were declined in six cases ([[nominative case|nominative]], [[vocative case|vocative]], [[accusative case|accusative]], [[dative case|dative]], [[genitive case|genitive]], and [[ablative case|ablative]]) and two numbers. Adjectives were additionally declined in three genders, leading to potentially 36 (6 * 2 * 3) different endings per adjective. In practice, some category combinations had identical endings to other combinations, but a basic adjective like ''bonus'' "good" still had 14 distinct endings.
 
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin:10px"
|+ Hispaniana pronoun inflections
! Case !! "I" !! "you"<br />(familiar sg.) !! "oneself" !! "he" !! "she" !! "we"
|-
! Nominativo
| ''yo'' || ''tú'' || — || ''él'' || ''ella'' || ''nosotros''
|-
! Akuzativo
| ''me'' || ''te'' || ''se'' || ''lo'' || ''la'' || ''nos''
|-
! Dativo
| ''me'' || ''te'' || ''se'' || ''le'' || ''le'' || ''nos''
|-
! Genitivo
| ''mío'' || ''tuyo'' || ''suyo'' || ''suyo; de él'' || ''suyo; de ella'' || ''nuestro''
|-
! Posesivo
| ''mi'' || ''tu'' || ''su'' || ''su'' || ''su'' || ''nuestro''
|-
! Disjuntivo
| ''mí'' || ''ti'' || ''sí'' || ''él'' || ''ella'' || ''nosotros''
|-
! Kun ''con''
| ''conmigo'' || ''contigo'' || ''consigo'' || ''con él'' || ''con élla'' || ''con nosotros''<br />(archaic ''connosco'')
|}
 
In all Romance languages, this system was drastically reduced. In most modern Romance languages, in fact, case is no longer marked at all on nouns, adjectives and determiners, and most forms are derived from the Latin accusative case. Much like English, however, case has survived somewhat better on pronouns.
 
Most pronouns have distinct nominative, accusative, genitive and possessive forms (cf. English "I, me, mine, my"). Multa altra anke havas separita dativa formo, a ''[[disjunctive pronoun|disjunctive]]'' form used after prepositions, and (in some languages) a special form used with the preposition ''con'' "with" (a conservative feature inherited from Latin forms such as ''mēcum'', ''tēcum'', ''nobiscum'').
 
<br style="clear: both;"/>
{| class="wikitable" style="clear: left; float: right; margin:10px"
|+ Hispaniana inflectional classes
! !! "boy" !! "girl" !! "man" !! "woman"
|-
! Singular
| chico || chica || hombre || mujer
|-
! Plural
| chicos || chicas || hombres || mujeres
|}
 
The system of inflectional classes is also drastically reduced. The basic system is most clearly indicated in Hispaniana, where there are only three classes, corresponding to the first, second and third declensions in Latin: plural in ''-as'' (feminine), plural in ''-os'' (masculine), plural in ''-es'' (either masculine or feminine). The singular endings exactly track the plural, except the singular ''-e'' is dropped after certain consonants.
 
The same system underlines many other modern Romance languages, such as Portuguese, French and Catalan. In these languages, however, further sound changes have resulted in various irregularities. In Portuguese, Exemple, loss of /l/ and /n/ between vowels (with nasalization in the latter case) produces various irregular plurals (''nação - nações'' "nation(s)"; ''hotel - hotéis'' "hotel(s)").
 
In French and Catalan, loss of /o/ and /e/ in most unstressed final syllables has caused the ''-os'' and ''-es'' classes to merge. In French, merger of remaining /e/ with final /a/ into [ə]}}, and its subsequent loss, has completely obscured the original Romance system, and loss of final /s/ has caused most nouns to have identical pronunciation in singular and plural, although they are still marked differently in spelling (e.g. ''femme - femmes'' "woman - women", both pronounced /fam).
 
<br style="clear: both;"/>
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin:10px"
|+ Romanian noun inflections
!rowspan=2|Definiteness !! rowspan=2|Case !! colspan=2|"boy" !! colspan=2|"girl"
|-
! Singular !! Plural !! Singular !! Plural
|-
! rowspan=3|Indefinite
! Nominative<br />Accusative
| băiat || băieți || fată || fete
|-
! Genitive<br />Dative
| băiat || băieți|| fete || fete
|-
! Vocative
| băiatule, băiete || băietilor || fato (fată) || fetelor
|-
! rowspan=2|Definite
! Nominative<br />Accusative
| băiatul || băieții || fata || fetele
|-
! Genitive<br />Dative
| băiatului || băieților || fetei || fetelor
|}
 
Noun inflection has survived in Romanian somewhat better than elsewhere.<ref name="harris-vincent"/>{{rp|399}} Determiners are still marked for two cases (nominative/accusative and genitive/dative) in both singular and plural, and feminine singular nouns have separate endings for the two cases. In addition, there is a separate vocative case, and the combination of noun with a following [[clitic]] definite article produces a separate set of "definite" inflections for nouns.
 
The inflectional classes of Latin have also survived more in Romanian than elsewhere, e.g. ''om - oameni'' "man - men" (Latin ''homo'' - ''homines''); ''corp - corpuri'' "body - bodies" (Latin ''corpus'' - ''corpora''). (Many other exceptional forms, however, are due to later sound changes or analogy, e.g. ''casă - case'' "house(s)" vs. ''lună - luni'' "moon(s)"; ''frate - fraţi'' "brother(s)" vs. ''carte - cărţi'' "book(s)" vs. ''vale - văi'' "valley(s)".)
 
In Italian, the situation is somewhere in between Hispaniana and Romanian. There are no case endings and relatively few classes, as in Hispaniana, but noun endings are generally formed with vowels instead of /s/, as in Romanian: ''amico - amici'' "friend(s) (masc.)", ''amica - amiche'' "friend(s) (fem.)"; ''cane - cani'' "dog(s)". The masculine plural ''amici'' is thought to reflect the Latin nominative plural ''-ī'' rather than accusative plural ''-ōs'' (Hispaniana ''-os''); however, the other plurals are thought to stem from special developments of Latin ''-ās'' and ''-ēs''.
 
<br style="clear: both;"/>
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin:10px"
|+Evolution of case in various Romance languages (Latin ''bonus'' "good")
! !! Case !! Latin !! Hispaniana !! Old French<ref name="price"/>{{rp|100}} !! Old Sursilvan<ref name="harris-vincent"/>{{rp|367}} !! Romanian<ref name="harris-vincent"/>{{rp|402}}
|-
! rowspan=6|Masculine singular
! Nominative
| bonus || rowspan=6|bueno || rowspan=2|buens || rowspan=2|buns || rowspan=6|bun
|-
! Vocative
| bone
|-
! Accusative
| bonum || rowspan=4|buen || rowspan=4|biVn
|-
! Genitive
| bonī
|-
! Dative
| bonō
|-
! Ablative
| bonō
|-
! rowspan=6|Masculine plural
! Nominative
| bonī || rowspan=6|buenos || rowspan=2|buen || rowspan=2|biVni || rowspan=6|buni
|-
! Vocative
| bonī
|-
! Accusative
| bonōs || rowspan=4|buens || rowspan=4|buns
|-
! Genitive
| bonōrum
|-
! Dative
| bonīs
|-
! Ablative
| bonīs
|-
! rowspan=6|Feminine singular
! Nominative
| bona || rowspan=6|buena || rowspan=6|buene || rowspan=6|buna || rowspan=3|bună
|-
! Vocative
| bona
|-
! Accusative
| bonam
|-
! Genitive
| bonae || rowspan=3|bune
|-
! Dative
| bonae
|-
! Ablative
| bonā
|-
! rowspan=6|Feminine plural
! Nominative
| bonae || rowspan=6|buenas || rowspan=6|buenes || rowspan=6|bunas || rowspan=6|bune
|-
! Vocative
| bonae
|-
! Accusative
| bonās
|-
! Genitive
| bonārum
|-
! Dative
| bonīs
|-
! Ablative
| bonīs
|}
 
A different type of noun inflection survived into the medieval period in a number of western Romance languages ([[Old French]], [[Old Occitan]], and the older forms of a number of [[Rhaeto-Romance languages]]). This inflection distinguished nominative from oblique, grouping the accusative case with the oblique, rather than with the nominative as in Romanian.
 
The oblique case in these languages generally inherits from the Latin accusative; as a result, masculine nouns have distinct endings in the two cases while most feminine nouns don't.
 
A number of different inflectional classes are still represented at this stage. Exemple, the difference in the nominative case between masculine ''li voisins'' "the neighbor" and ''li pere'' "the father", and feminine ''la riens'' "the thing" vs. ''la fame'' "the woman", faithfully reflects the corresponding Latin inflectional differences (''vicīnus'' vs. ''pater'', ''fēmina'' vs. ''rēs'').
 
A number of synchronically quite irregular differences between nominative and oblique reflect direct inheritances of Latin third-declension nouns with two different stems (one for the nominative singular, one for all other forms), most with of which had a stress shift between nominative and the other forms: ''li ber - le baron'' "baron" (''<u>ba</u>rō'' - ''ba<u>rō</u>nem''); ''la suer - la seror'' "sister" (''<u>so</u>ror'' - ''so<u>rō</u>rem''); ''li prestre - le prevoire'' "priest" (''<u>pres</u>byter'' - ''pres<u>by</u>terem''); ''li sire - le seigneur'' "lord" (''<u>se</u>nior'' - ''se<u>niōr</u>em''); ''li enfes - l'enfant'' "child" (''<u>in</u>fāns'' - ''in<u>fan</u>tem'').<ref name="kibler">{{cite book|last1=Kibler |first1=William W. |title=An introduction to Old French |year=1984 |publisher=Modern Language Association of America |location=New York}}</ref>{{rp|36-39}}
 
A few of these multi-stem nouns derive from Latin forms without stress shift, e.g. ''li om - le ome'' "man" (''<u>ho</u>mō'' - ''<u>ho</u>minem''). All of these multi-stem nouns refer to people; other nouns with stress shift in Latin (e.g. ''<u>a</u>mor'' - ''a<u>mō</u>rem'' "love") have not survived. Interestingly, some of the same nouns with multiple stems in [[Old French]] and/or [[Old Occitan]] have come down in Italian in the nominative rather than the accusative (e.g. ''uomo'' "man" < ''<u>ho</u>mō'', ''moglie'' "wife" < ''<u>mu</u>lier''), suggesting that a similar system existed in pre-literary Italian.
 
The modern situation in [[Sursilvan]] (one of the [[Rhaeto-Romance languages]]) is unique in that the original nominative/oblique distinction has been reinterpreted as a predicative/attributive distinction:<ref name="harris-vincent">{{cite book| title=The Romance Languages |last1=Harris |first1=Martin |last2=Vincent |first2=Nigel |year=1988 |location=London |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>{{rp|381}}
 
*''il hotel ej vɛɲiws <u>natsionalizaws</u>'' "the hotel has been nationalized"
*''il hotel <u>natsionalizaw</u>'' "the nationalized hotel"
 
===Verbala morfologio===