Latinida linguo: Diferi inter la revizi

Kontenajo efacita Kontenajo adjuntita
mNula rezumo di redakto
Katxis (diskutez | kontributadi)
Lineo 129:
 
=====Stressed vowels=====
======Loss of vowel length, reorientation======
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{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1" style="font-family:Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode; float:right; margin:1em; text-align:center;"
|-
!colspan="9"| Evolution of the stressed vowels in early Romance
|-
!colspan="3"| Classical
! Proto-<br />Romance
!colspan="2"| Western<br />Romance
! Balkan<br />Romance !! Sardinian !! Sicilian
|-
!Acad.<small><sup>1</sup></small>
!Roman
!colspan=2|[[Help:IPA|IPA]]
!Acad.<small><sup>1</sup></small>
!width="60"|[[Help:IPA|IPA]] !! colspan="3"|[[Help:IPA|IPA]]
|-
! ''ī''
|long ''i'' || /iː || rowspan=2|/i/ [i(ː)]}} || rowspan=2|'''i''' || colspan=2 rowspan=2|/i || rowspan=4| /i || rowspan=6|/i
|-
! ''ȳ''
|long ''y'' || /yː
|-
! ''i (ĭ)''
|short ''i''|| /i/ [ɪ]}} || rowspan=2|/ɪ/ [ɪ(ː)]}} || rowspan=4| '''ẹ''' || colspan=2 rowspan=4| /e
|-
! ''y (y̆)''
|short ''y'' || /y
|-
! ''ē''
|long ''e'' || /eː || rowspan=2|/e/ [e(ː)]}}|| rowspan=4| /e
|-
! ''œ''
|''oe'' || /oj > /eː
|-
! ''e (ĕ)''
|short ''e''|| /e/ [ɛ]}} || rowspan=2|/ɛ/ [ɛ(ː)]}} || rowspan=2|'''ę''' || colspan=2 rowspan=2|/ɛ || rowspan=2| /ɛ
|-
! ''æ''
|''ae'' || /aj > [ɛː]}}
|-
! ''ā''
|long ''a'' || /aː || rowspan=2|/a/ [a(ː)]}} || rowspan=2 | '''a''' || colspan=4 rowspan=2 | /a
|-
! ''a (ă)''
|short ''a''|| /a
|-
! ''o (ŏ)''
|short ''o''|| /o/ [ɔ]}} || /ɔ/ [ɔ(ː)]}} || '''ǫ''' || /ɔ || colspan=2 rowspan=3| /o || /ɔ
|-
! ''ō''
|long ''o'' || /oː || rowspan=2|/o/ [o(ː)]}} || rowspan=3 | '''ọ''' || rowspan=3 | /o || rowspan=4 | /u
|-
! ''au''<br />''(en poka vorti)''
|''au'' || /aw > /oː
|-
! ''u (ŭ)''
|short ''u'' || /u/ [ʊ]}} || /ʊ/ [ʊ(ː)]}} || colspan=2 rowspan=2| /u
|-
! ''ū''
|long ''u'' || /uː || /u/ [u(ː)]}} || '''u''' || /u
|-
! ''au''<br />''(multa vorti)''
|''au'' || colspan=2|/aw || '''au''' || colspan=4|/aw
|-
|colspan="9"| <small><sup>1</sup></small> Traditional academic transcription in Latin and Romance studies, respectively.
|}
<!-- One profound change that affected Vulgar Latin was the reorganisation of its [[vowel]] system. Classical Latin had five short vowels, ''ă, ĕ, ĭ, ŏ, ŭ'', and five [[vowel length|long vowels]], ''ā, ē, ī, ō, ū'', each of which was an individual [[phoneme]] (see the table in the right, for their likely pronunciation in IPA), and four [[diphthong]]s, ''ae'', ''oe'', ''au'' and ''eu'' (five according to some authors, including ''ui''). There were also long and short versions of ''y'', representing the [[Close front rounded vowel|rounded vowel]] /y(ː) in Greek borrowings, which however probably came to be pronounced /i(ː) even before Romance vowel changes started.
 
There is evidence that in the imperial period all the short vowels except ''a'' differed by quality as well as by length from their long counterparts.<ref>Allen (2003) states: "There appears to have been no great difference in quality between long and short ''a'', but in the case of the close and mid vowels (''i'' and ''u'', ''e'' and ''o'') the long appear to have been appreciably closer than the short." He then goes on to the historical development, quotations from various authors (from around the second century AD), as well as evidence from older inscriptions where "e" stands for normally short ''i'', and "i" for long ''e'', etc.</ref> Do, exemple ''ē'' pronuncesis [[Close-mid vowel|close-mid]] /eː dum ke ''ĕ'' pronuncesis [[Open-mid vowel|open-mid]] /ɛ, and ''ī'' pronuncesis [[Close vowel|close]] /iː while ''ĭ'' pronuncesis [[Near-close vowel|near-close]] /ɪ/.
 
During the Proto-Romance period, phonemic length distinctions were lost. Vowels came to be automatically pronounced long in stressed, [[open syllable]]s (i.e. when followed by only one consonant), and pronounced short everywhere else. This situation is still maintained in modern Italian: ''cade'' [ˈkaːde]}} "he falls" vs. ''cadde'' [ˈkadde]}} "he fell".
 
The Proto-Romance loss of phonemic length originally produced a system with nine different quality distinctions in monophthongs, where only original /ă ā had merged. Soon, however, many of these vowels coalesced:
*The simplest outcome was in [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]],<ref>Technically, Sardinian is one of the [[Southern Romance languages]]. The same vowel outcome occurred in a small strip running across southern Italy (the ''Lausberg Zone''), and is thought to have formerly occurred in the Romance languages of northern Africa.</ref> where the former long and short vowels in Latin simply coalesced, e.g. /ĕ ē > /e, /ĭ ī > /i: This produced a simple five-vowel system /a e i o u.
*In most areas, however (technically, the [[Italo-Western languages]]), the near-close vowels /ɪ ʊ lowered and merged into the high-mid vowels /e o. As a result, Latin ''pira'' "pear" and ''vēra'' "true", came to rhyme (e.g. Italian and Hispaniana ''pera, vera'', and [[Old French]] ''poire, voire''). Similarly, Latin ''nucem'' (from ''nux'' "nut") and ''vōcem'' (from ''vōx'' "voice") become Italian ''noce, voce'', Portuguese ''noz, voz'', and French ''noix, voix''. This produced a seven-vowel system /a ɛ e i ɔ o u, still maintained in conservative languages such as Italian and Portuguese, and lightly transformed in Hispaniana (where /ɛ/ > /je/, /ɔ/ > /we).
*In the [[Eastern Romance languages]] (particularly, [[Romanian language|Rumaniana]]), the front vowels /ĕ ē ĭ ī evolved as in the majority of languages, but the back vowels /ŏ ō ŭ ū evolved as in Sardinian. This produced an unbalanced six-vowel system: /a ɛ e i o u. In modern Romanian, this system has been significantly transformed, with /ɛ/ > /je and with new vowels /ə ɨ evolving, leading to a balanced seven-vowel system with central as well as front and back vowels: /a e i ə ɨ o u.
*[[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] is sometimes described as having its own distinct vowel system. In fact, Sicilian passed through the same developments as the main bulk of Italo-Western languages. Subsequently, however, high-mid vowels (but not low-mid vowels) were raised in all syllables, stressed and unstressed; i.e. /e o/ > /i u.
 
The Proto-Romance allophonic vowel-length system was rephonemicized in the [[Gallo-Romance languages]] as a result of the loss of many final vowels. Some northern Italian languages (e.g. [[Friulan language|Friulan]]) still maintain this secondary phonemic length, but most languages dropped it by either diphthongizing or shortening the new long vowels.
 
French phonemicized a third vowel system around AD 1300 as a result of the sound change /VsC/ > /VhC/ > /VːC (where ''V'' is any vowel and ''C'' any consonant). This vowel length was eventually lost by around AD 1700, but the former long vowels are still marked with a circumflex. A fourth vowel length system, still non-phonemic, has now arisen: All nasal vowels as well as the oral vowels /ɑ o ø (which mostly derive from former long vowels) are pronounced long in all stressed [[closed syllable]]s, and all vowels are pronounced long in syllables closed by the voiced fricatives /v z ʒ ʁ vʁ. This system in turn has been phonemicized in some non-standard dialects (e.g. [[Haitian Creole]]), as a result of the loss of final /ʁ.
 
=====Unstressed vowels=====
 
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{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1" style="font-family:Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode; float:right; margin:1em; text-align:center;"
|+Evolution of unstressed vowels in early Italo-Western Romance
!rowspan=2| Latin
!rowspan=2| Proto-<br />Romance
!colspan="2" rowspan=2| Stressed || rowspan=2|Non-final<br />unstressed || colspan=5|Final-unstressed
|-
! Original
! Later<br />Italo-<br />Romance
! Later<br />Western-<br />Romance
! Gallo-<br />Romance
! Primitive<br />French
|-
!colspan=2|[[Help:IPA|IPA]]
!Acad.<small><sup>1</sup></small>
!width="60"|[[Help:IPA|IPA]] !! colspan="6"|[[Help:IPA|IPA]]
|-
! ''a,ā''
| /a || '''a''' || colspan=2|/a || colspan=4|/a || /ə
|-
! ''e,ae''
| /ɛ || '''ę''' || /ɛ || rowspan=3| /e || colspan=2 rowspan=3| /e || rowspan=4|/e || rowspan=8|∅; /e (prop) || rowspan=8|∅; /ə (prop)
|-
! ''ē,oe''
| /e || rowspan=2| '''ẹ''' || rowspan=2| /e
|-
! ''i,y''
| /ɪ
|-
! ''ī,ȳ''
| /i || '''i''' || colspan=2|/i || colspan=2|/i
|-
! ''o''
| /ɔ || '''ǫ''' || /ɔ || rowspan=3| /o || rowspan=2| /o || colspan=2 rowspan=4| /o
|-
! ''ō,(au)''
| /o || rowspan=2| '''ọ''' || rowspan=2| /o
|-
! ''u''
| /ʊ || rowspan=2| /u
|-
! ''ū''
| /u || '''u''' || colspan=2|/u
|-
! ''au''<br />''(most words)''
| /aw || '''au''' || colspan=2|/aw || colspan=5|N/A
|-
|colspan="10"| <small><sup>1</sup></small> Traditional academic transcription in Romance studies.
|}
 
There was more variability in the result of the unstressed vowels. Originally in Proto-Romance, the same nine vowels developed in unstressed as stressed syllables, and in Sardinian, they coalesced into the same five vowels in the same way.
 
In Italo-Western Romance, however, vowels in unstressed syllables were significantly different from stressed vowels, with yet a third outcome for final unstressed syllables. In non-final unstressed syllables, the seven-vowel system of stressed syllables developed, but then the low-mid vowels /ɛ ɔ merged into the high-mid vowels /e o. This system is still preserved, largely or completely, in all of the conservative Romance languages (e.g. Italian, Hispaniana, Portuguese, Catalan).
 
In final unstressed syllables, results were somewhat complex. One of the more difficult issues is the development of final short ''-u'', which appears to have been raised to /u rather than lowered to /o, as happened in all other syllables. However, it is possible that in reality, final /u comes from ''long'' *''-ū'' < ''-um'', where original final ''-m'' caused vowel lengthening as well as nasalization. Evidence of this comes from [[Rhaeto-Romance]], in particular [[Sursilvan]], which preserves reflexes of both final ''-us'' and ''-um'', and where the latter, but not the former, triggers [[metaphony]] (see above). This suggests the development ''-us'' > /ʊs > /os, but ''-um'' > /ũː > /u.<ref>Note that the outcome of ''-am -em -om'' would be the same regardless of whether lengthening occurred, and that ''-im'' was already rare in Classical Latin, and appears to have barely survived in Proto-Romance. The only likely survival is in "-teen" numerals such as ''trēdecim'' "thirteen" > Italian ''tredici''. This favors the vowel-lengthening hypothesis ''-im'' > /ĩː > /i; but notice unexpected ''decem'' > Italian ''dieci'' (rather than expected ''*diece''). It is possible that ''dieci'' comes from *''decim'', which analogically replaced ''decem'' based on the ''-decim'' ending; but it is also possible that the final /i/ in ''dieci'' represents an irregular development of some other sort and that the process of analogy worked in the other direction.</ref>
 
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1" style="font-family:Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode; float:right; margin:1em;"
|+Examples of evolution of final unstressed vowels
! Ido !! Latino !! Proto-Italo-Western !! Conservative<br />Central Italian !! Italian !! Hispaniana !! Catalan !! Old French
|-
| one (fem.) || ''ūnam'' || una || una || una || una || una || une
|-
| porto || ''portam'' || porta || porta || porta || puerta || porta || porte
|-
| seven || ''septem'' || sette || sette || sette || siete || set || set
|-
| sea || ''mare'' || mare || mare || mare || mar || mar || mer
|-
| peace || ''pācem'' || pace || pace || pace || paz || pau || paiz
|-
| part || ''partem'' || parte || parte || parte || parte || part || part
|-
| mother || ''mātrem'' || matre || matre || madre || madre || mare || meḍre
|-
| twenty || ''vīgintī'' || veenti || vinti || venti || veinte || vint || vint
|-
| four || ''quattuor'' || quattro || quattro || quattro || cuatro || quatre || quatre
|-
| eight || ''octō'' || octo || ɔtto || otto || ocho || vuit || huit
|-
| when || ''quandō'' || quando || quando || quando || cuando || quan || quant
|-
| fourth || ''quartum'' || quartu || quartu || quarto || cuarto || quart || quart
|-
| one (masc.) || ''ūnum'' || unu || unu || uno || uno || un || un
|-
| port || ''portum'' || portu || portu || porto || puerto || port || port
|-
|}
 
The original five-vowel system in final unstressed syllables was preserved as-is in some of the more conservative central Italian languages, but in most languages there was further coalescence:
*In [[Tuscan dialect|Tuscan]] (including standard Italian), final /u/ merged into /o/.
*In the [[Western Romance languages]], final /i/ eventually merged into /e/ (although final /i/ triggered [[metaphony]] before that). Conservative languages like Hispaniana largely maintain that system, but drop final /e/ after certain single consonants, e.g. /r/, /l/, /n/, /d/, /z/ (< palatalized ''c'').
*In the [[Gallo-Romance languages]] (part of Western Romance), final /o/ and /e/ were dropped entirely unless that produced an impossible final cluster (e.g. /tr/), in which case a "prop vowel" /e/ was added. This left only two final vowels: /a/ and prop vowel /e/. Catalan preserves this system.
*In primitive [[Old French]] (one of the [[Gallo-Romance languages]]), these two remaining vowels merged into /ə.
 
Various later changes happened in individual languages, e.g.:
*In French, most final consonants were dropped, and then final /ə was also dropped. The /ə is still preserved in spelling as a final silent ''-e'', whose main purpose is to signal that the previous consonant is pronounced, e.g. ''port'' "port" /pɔʁ vs. ''porte'' "door" /pɔʁt. These changes also eliminated the difference between singular and plural in most words: ''ports'' "ports" (still /pɔʁ), ''portes'' "doors" (still /pɔʁt). Final consonants reappear in [[liaison (French)|liaison]] contexts (in close connection with a following vowel-initial word), e.g. ''nous'' /nu "we" vs. ''nous avons'' /nuz-aˈvɔ̃ "we have", ''il fait'' /il fɛ "he does" vs. ''fait-il?" /fɛt-il "does he?".
*In Catalan, final unstressed /as/ > /es/.
*In Portuguese, final unstressed /o/ and /u/ were apparently preserved intact for a while, since final unstressed /u/, but not /o/ or /os/, triggered [[metaphony]] (see above). Final-syllable unstressed /o/ was raised in preliterary times to /u/, but always still written ⟨o⟩. At some point (perhaps in late [[Old Portuguese]]), final-syllable unstressed /e/ was raised to /i/ (but still written ⟨e⟩); this remains in [[Brazilian Portuguese]], but has developed to /ɨ en Portugalana de Europa.
 
==== Morfo-sintaxala chanji ====
===== Case system =====