Latinida linguo: Diferi inter la revizi

Kontenajo efacita Kontenajo adjuntita
Katxis (diskutez | kontributadi)
kelka korektigi
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| style="vertical-align: top; padding-left: 0.5em;" |ISO 639-3||roa
|- class="hiddenStructure{{{mapo<includeonly>|</includeonly>}}}"
|colspan=2 style="text-align: center; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"| {{#ifexist: File:IE countries.svg | [[ImajoArkivo:IE countries.svg|{{{mapo_grandeso|200x200px}}}|{{{nomo|}}}]] | [[ImajoArkivo:Map-Romance Language World.png|300px]] }} <center><small>{{{mapo_paroli|Extenziono dil Latinida lingui.}}}</small></center><br /><center>
[[Franciana linguo|<span style="background-color:#0000FF;color:white;">&nbsp;Franciana&nbsp;</span>]]
[[Hispaniana linguo|<span style="background-color:#00B927;color:white;">&nbsp;Hispaniana&nbsp;</span>]]
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{{revizo}}
 
'''Latinida linguo''' esas omna linguolingui qui originis de precipua [[Latina linguo|latina]] di populo, do l'ordinara formo, per opozo kun to klasika e literala, en la teritorii di RomanaRoman imperio ecepte [[Grekia]] e qua ne havas konquestita da Mohamedisti do nord-[[Afrika]] e [[Turkia]]. Ol formasformacas subgrupo en la [[Italika linguaro]], brancho di l'[[Indo-Europana linguaro]]. La diciplino qua studas la Latinida lingui esas [[Latinida filologio]]. Ti lingui parolas en teritorio konocata kom [[Romania]], qua hodie okupas precipue la sudo di Europa,
 
La Latinida lingui developis ek la Latina inter la 6ma e la 9ma yarcenti. Hodie, li havas plu di 800 milioni di nativa parolanti, precipue en Europa ed Amerika ed anke havas granda numero di ne-nativa parolanti e granda uzo kom helpolinguo. Pro la nefacileso por distingar inter linguo e dialekto, hodie ne esas konocata la nombro di Latinida lingui ma la standard akonti nombras 25 (quankam la nombro esas plu granda).
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== LokadoLoko: Romania ==
[[Arkivo:Romance 20c en.png|right|350px|thumb|LokadoLoko di Romania, la teritorii ube Latinida lingui en Europa parolesas.]]
 
La Latinida lingui evoluisevolucionis ex la Latina linguo. Post la falita de la RomanaRoman Imperioimperio, la latino divastigita en granda teritorii d'Europa, dividis en multa lingui quale la Hispaniana o l'Italiana.
 
La teritorio ube cica lingui esasparolesas parolata nomesasnominesas Romania.
 
== Historio ==
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On datas proxim l'evoluciono di populala latina vers la Latinida lingui tale:
# inter [[200 aK]] e [[400]] : diferanta formi influeso da lokala ante,
# [[RomanaRoman Imperioimperio|imperio]] falas,
# poka pose [[800]]: lua existi esas agnoskar ([[Tours-sinodo]]) e ye 842 unesma texto en protofranca, Strasbourg-juri.
 
==== Ek klasika Latina a vulgara Latina ====
Tra longa proceso qua komencis longatempe ante nun e, dependanta dil regiono, en diferanta epoki (precipue ek la 4ma yarcento e pose kontinuis til la 10ma yarcento), dil renkontro tra la Latina difundita per la Romani en politikala, kulturala ed etnala nivelo (to esas, la rezulto dil migrado dil koloniisti di lingua Latina o latinigita) kun la diversa lingui uzita per populacioni dil RomanaRoman Imperioimperio, precipue en ocidentala parto, divelopeskis to quo esos la lingui qui esos denifita kom Latinida.
 
Komence ol esis kontaminado dil Latino parolita dal Romana funcioneri, dal soldati e dal merkanti qui vivis en certa provinco, per lingui (preske omna Kelti) parlita en la regiono di l’indijena populaciono. Latino parolita per ta Romani, tanta de regionala perspektivo (to esas, dil provinco di origino, kun ne-evitabla diferenci di acento e vorti, derivita dil proceso di latinigado plu o min intensa di ta provinco) kam de kulturala perspektivo (la soldati ne parolis kulta linguo kom la funcionari dil stato). Tala kontaminaciono ne esis decisiva nam l’Imperio restis unita kom politikala uniono pro la granda kulturala influo pro la granda cultura influo: la provo esas la transvivo di poka Keltida paroli en la Latinida lingui.
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L'unesm atesto dil termino ''romana'' (''romana linguo'', di qua la termino ''romanza'', en senso di ''romanida'' o ''linguo derivata ek la Latino''), aperas en la [[Konsilio di Tours (813)]], dum qua '''durante il quale così ci si riferisce alla lingua comunemente parlata all'epoca in [[Gallia]], in opposizione alla lingua germanica parlata dai Franchi invasori.'''
 
La ''Serment de Strasbourg'' o ''[[Juro di Strasbourg]]'' ([[842]]) esas identifikata kom l'unesma oficala dokumento en qua uzesas ancestro dil [[Franciana linguo|Frenciana]] (e dil [[GermanianaGermana linguo|GermanianaGermana]], esanta redaktita en du kopii da [[Karlo la Kalva]], e [[Ludwig la Germana]], unu latinigado ed altro, germanigado.
 
Inter la rara dokumenti in pra-Franciana linguo (iniciala fazo dil pazo ek la Latina a prekoca formo dil Franciana) esas gravas la ''[[Glossario di Reichnau]], redaktita en la 9ma yarcento (880) ed
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Tra i rari documenti pervenuti della lingua protofrancese, (fase iniziale del passaggio dal latino ad una forma precoce di francese) è rilevante il [[Glossario di Reichnau]], redatto nel IX sec (880 d.C.) '''ed avente varie colonne riguardanti lemmi latini e loro definizioni, insieme ad altre concernenti le lingue dell'area francese.'''
 
L'unesma oficala dokumento qua arivis til hodie qua atestas l'uzado dil vulgaro en Italia esas la ''[[placito capuano]]'', dil [[960]] (quankam ol existas precedanta atesti qui, sine oficialesa valoro, atestas la distanco kun la Latina ja en la 8ma yarcento, kom exemple la ''[[indovinello veronese]]'').
 
Sono del X secolo le [[Glosse silensi]] e le [[Glosse emilianensi]], più antiche testimonianze esplicite dell'esistenza dell'antico [[castiglianoKastiliana linguo]]: si tratta di annotazioni aggiunte a testi latini da monaci [[Benedettini]] dei monasteri di ''San Millán de la Cogolla'' o di ''Suso''. Tali note costituiscono vere e proprie traduzioni dello scritto originale. Tra esse, ad esempio, si può leggere ''"quod: por ke"'' oppure ''"ignorante: non sapiendo"''.
 
Risale invece a poco prima del 1175 il più antico documento del volgare [[Lingua portoghese|portoghese]] pervenutoci: si tratta di una sorta di patto di non aggressione tra due fratelli, Gomes Pais e Ramiro Pais, recentemente scoperto dal ricercatore José António Souto. Prima di tale scoperta si reputavano più antichi alcuni testi con datazione oscillante tra il [[1192]] e il [[XIII secolo]], come l'''Auto de Partilhas'' e la ''Notícia de Torto''.
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:'''6. ''pridem non pride.'''''
:Ica lasta exemplo (la listo ne esas exhaustiva) montras ke /m/ al fino di parolo ne prononcis (quo ja okazis en Klasika Latina: Latina verso montras to). Ta silencado esas, inter altri, l'origino dil disaparo dil flexioni; Latinida lingui ne uzas, fakte, ja latina deklinadi ed uzas preposizioni qua naskis kom auxiliara sistemo e pokopegradope substitucisremplasis flexiono.
 
Ica listo ne esas exhaustiva ed esus necesara abordar la questiono dil ''pan-Latinida'' diftongado (qua konocas omna Latinida lingui) ed signalar qua numero di vokalis naskis kam konsequo di duesma diftongadi.
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|-
! ''ī''
|long ''i'' || {{IPA|/iː/}} || rowspan=2|{{IPA|/i/ [i(ː)]}} || rowspan=2|'''i''' || colspan=2 rowspan=2|{{IPA|/i/}} || rowspan=4| {{IPA|/i/}} || rowspan=6|{{IPA|/i/}}
|-
! ''ȳ''
|long ''y'' || {{IPA|/yː/}}
|-
! ''i (ĭ)''
|short ''i''|| {{IPA|/i/ [ɪ]}} || rowspan=2|{{IPA|/ɪ/ [ɪ(ː)]}} || rowspan=4| '''ẹ''' || colspan=2 rowspan=4| {{IPA|/e/}}
|-
! ''y (y̆)''
|short ''y'' || {{IPA|/y/}}
|-
! ''ē''
|long ''e'' || {{IPA|/eː/}} || rowspan=2|{{IPA|/e/ [e(ː)]}}|| rowspan=4| {{IPA|/e/}}
|-
! ''œ''
|''oe'' || {{IPA|/oj/}} > {{IPA|/eː/}}
|-
! ''e (ĕ)''
|short ''e''|| {{IPA|/e/ [ɛ]}} || rowspan=2|{{IPA|/ɛ/ [ɛ(ː)]}} || rowspan=2|'''ę''' || colspan=2 rowspan=2|{{IPA|/ɛ/}} || rowspan=2| {{IPA|/}}
|-
! ''æ''
|''ae'' || {{IPA|/aj/}} > {{IPA|[ɛː]}}
|-
! ''ā''
|long ''a'' || {{IPA|/aː/}} || rowspan=2|{{IPA|/a/ [a(ː)]}} || rowspan=2 | '''a''' || colspan=4 rowspan=2 | {{IPA|/a/}}
|-
! ''a (ă)''
|short ''a''|| {{IPA|/a/}}
|-
! ''o (ŏ)''
|short ''o''|| {{IPA|/o/ [ɔ]}} || {{IPA|/ɔ/ [ɔ(ː)]}} || '''ǫ''' || {{IPA|/}} || colspan=2 rowspan=3| {{IPA|/o/}} || {{IPA|/}}
|-
! ''ō''
|long ''o'' || {{IPA|/oː/}} || rowspan=2|{{IPA|/o/ [o(ː)]}} || rowspan=3 | '''ọ''' || rowspan=3 | {{IPA|/o/}} || rowspan=4 | {{IPA|/u/}}
|-
! ''au''<br />''(a few words)''
|''au'' || {{IPA|/aw/}} > {{IPA|/oː/}}
|-
! ''u (ŭ)''
|short ''u'' || {{IPA|/u/ [ʊ]}} || {{IPA|/ʊ/ [ʊ(ː)]}} || colspan=2 rowspan=2| {{IPA|/u/}}
|-
! ''ū''
|long ''u'' || {{IPA|/uː/}} || {{IPA|/u/ [u(ː)]}} || '''u''' || {{IPA|/u/}}
|-
! ''au''<br />''(most words)''
|''au'' || colspan=2|{{IPA|/aw/}} || '''au''' || colspan=4|{{IPA|/aw/}}
|-
|colspan="9"| <small><sup>1</sup></small> Traditional academic transcription in Latin and Romance studies, respectively.
|}
One profound change that affected Vulgar Latin was the reorganisation of its [[vowel]] system. Classical Latin had five short vowels, ''ă, ĕ, ĭ, ŏ, ŭ'', and five [[vowel length|long vowels]], ''ā, ē, ī, ō, ū'', each of which was an individual [[phoneme]] (see the table in the right, for their likely pronunciation in IPA), and four [[diphthong]]s, ''ae'', ''oe'', ''au'' and ''eu'' (five according to some authors, including ''ui''). There were also long and short versions of ''y'', representing the [[Close front rounded vowel|rounded vowel]] {{IPA|/y(ː)/}} in Greek borrowings, which however probably came to be pronounced {{IPA|/i(ː)/}} even before Romance vowel changes started.
 
There is evidence that in the imperial period all the short vowels except ''a'' differed by quality as well as by length from their long counterparts.<ref>Allen (2003) states: "There appears to have been no great difference in quality between long and short ''a'', but in the case of the close and mid vowels (''i'' and ''u'', ''e'' and ''o'') the long appear to have been appreciably closer than the short." He then goes on to the historical development, quotations from various authors (from around the second century AD), as well as evidence from older inscriptions where "e" stands for normally short ''i'', and "i" for long ''e'', etc.</ref> SoDo, for exampleexemple ''ē'' was pronouncedpronuncesis [[Close-mid vowel|close-mid]] {{IPA|/eː/}} whiledum ke ''ĕ'' was pronouncedpronuncesis [[Open-mid vowel|open-mid]] {{IPA|/}}, and ''ī'' was pronouncedpronuncesis [[Close vowel|close]] {{IPA|/iː/}} while ''ĭ'' was pronouncedpronuncesis [[Near-close vowel|near-close]] {{IPA|/ɪ/}}.
 
During the Proto-Romance period, phonemic length distinctions were lost. Vowels came to be automatically pronounced long in stressed, [[open syllable]]s (i.e. when followed by only one consonant), and pronounced short everywhere else. This situation is still maintained in modern Italian: ''cade'' {{IPA|[ˈkaːde]}} "he falls" vs. ''cadde'' {{IPA|[ˈkadde]}} "he fell".
 
The Proto-Romance loss of phonemic length originally produced a system with nine different quality distinctions in monophthongs, where only original {{IPA|/ă ā/}} had merged. Soon, however, many of these vowels coalesced:
*The simplest outcome was in [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]],<ref>Technically, Sardinian is one of the [[Southern Romance languages]]. The same vowel outcome occurred in a small strip running across southern Italy (the ''Lausberg Zone''), and is thought to have formerly occurred in the Romance languages of northern Africa.</ref> where the former long and short vowels in Latin simply coalesced, e.g. {{IPA|/ĕ ē/}} > {{IPA|/e/}}, {{IPA|/ĭ ī/}} > {{IPA|/i/}}: This produced a simple five-vowel system {{IPA|/a e i o u/}}.
*In most areas, however (technically, the [[Italo-Western languages]]), the near-close vowels {{IPA|/ɪ ʊ/}} lowered and merged into the high-mid vowels {{IPA|/e o/}}. As a result, Latin ''pira'' "pear" and ''vēra'' "true", came to rhyme (e.g. Italian and SpanishHispaniana ''pera, vera'', and [[Old French]] ''poire, voire''). Similarly, Latin ''nucem'' (from ''nux'' "nut") and ''vōcem'' (from ''vōx'' "voice") become Italian ''noce, voce'', Portuguese ''noz, voz'', and French ''noix, voix''. This produced a seven-vowel system {{IPA|/a ɛ e i ɔ o u/}}, still maintained in conservative languages such as Italian and Portuguese, and lightly transformed in SpanishHispaniana (where {{IPA|/ɛ/ > /je/, /ɔ/ > /we/}}).
*In the [[Eastern Romance languages]] (particularly, [[Romanian language|RomanianRumaniana]]), the front vowels {{IPA|/ĕ ē ĭ ī/}} evolved as in the majority of languages, but the back vowels {{IPA|/ŏ ō ŭ ū/}} evolved as in Sardinian. This produced an unbalanced six-vowel system: {{IPA|/a ɛ e i o u/}}. In modern Romanian, this system has been significantly transformed, with {{IPA|/ɛ/ > /je/}} and with new vowels {{IPA|/ə ɨ/}} evolving, leading to a balanced seven-vowel system with central as well as front and back vowels: {{IPA|/a e i ə ɨ o u/}}.
*[[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] is sometimes described as having its own distinct vowel system. In fact, Sicilian passed through the same developments as the main bulk of Italo-Western languages. Subsequently, however, high-mid vowels (but not low-mid vowels) were raised in all syllables, stressed and unstressed; i.e. {{IPA|/e o/ > /i u/}}.
 
The Proto-Romance allophonic vowel-length system was rephonemicized in the [[Gallo-Romance languages]] as a result of the loss of many final vowels. Some northern Italian languages (e.g. [[Friulan language|Friulan]]) still maintain this secondary phonemic length, but most languages dropped it by either diphthongizing or shortening the new long vowels.
 
French phonemicized a third vowel system around AD 1300 as a result of the sound change /VsC/ > /VhC/ > {{IPA|/VːC/}} (where ''V'' is any vowel and ''C'' any consonant). This vowel length was eventually lost by around AD 1700, but the former long vowels are still marked with a circumflex. A fourth vowel length system, still non-phonemic, has now arisen: All nasal vowels as well as the oral vowels {{IPA|/ɑ o ø/}} (which mostly derive from former long vowels) are pronounced long in all stressed [[closed syllable]]s, and all vowels are pronounced long in syllables closed by the voiced fricatives {{IPA|/v z ʒ ʁ vʁ/}}. This system in turn has been phonemicized in some non-standard dialects (e.g. [[Haitian Creole]]), as a result of the loss of final {{IPA|/}}.
 
======Front-rounded vowels======
Characteristic of the [[Gallo-Romance languages]] and [[Rhaeto-Romance languages]] are the [[front rounded vowel]]s {{IPA|/y ø œ/}}. All of these languages show an unconditional change /u/ > /y/, e.g. ''lūnam'' > French ''lune'' {{IPA|/lyn/}}, Occitan {{IPA|/ˈlyno/}}. Many of the languages in Switzerland and Italy show the further change /y/ > /i/. Also very common is some variation of the French development {{IPA|/ɔː oː/}} (lengthened in [[open syllable]]s) > {{IPA|/we ew/}} > {{IPA|/œ œ/}}, with mid back vowels diphthongizing in some circumstances and then re-monophthongizing into mid-front rounded vowels. (French has both {{IPA|/}} and {{IPA|/}}, with {{IPA|/}} developing from {{IPA|/}} in certain circumstances.)
 
=====Unstressed vowels=====
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|-
! ''a,ā''
| {{IPA|/a/}} || '''a''' || colspan=2|{{IPA|/a/}} || colspan=4|{{IPA|/a/}} || {{IPA|/}}
|-
! ''e,ae''
| {{IPA|/}} || '''ę''' || {{IPA|/}} || rowspan=3| {{IPA|/e/}} || colspan=2 rowspan=3| {{IPA|/e/}} || rowspan=4|{{IPA|/e/}} || rowspan=8|∅; {{IPA|/e/}} (prop) || rowspan=8|∅; {{IPA|/}} (prop)
|-
! ''ē,oe''
| {{IPA|/e/}} || rowspan=2| '''ẹ''' || rowspan=2| {{IPA|/e/}}
|-
! ''i,y''
| {{IPA|/}}
|-
! ''ī,ȳ''
| {{IPA|/i/}} || '''i''' || colspan=2|{{IPA|/i/}} || colspan=2|{{IPA|/i/}}
|-
! ''o''
| {{IPA|/}} || '''ǫ''' || {{IPA|/}} || rowspan=3| {{IPA|/o/}} || rowspan=2| {{IPA|/o/}} || colspan=2 rowspan=4| {{IPA|/o/}}
|-
! ''ō,(au)''
| {{IPA|/o/}} || rowspan=2| '''ọ''' || rowspan=2| {{IPA|/o/}}
|-
! ''u''
| {{IPA|/}} || rowspan=2| {{IPA|/u/}}
|-
! ''ū''
| {{IPA|/u/}} || '''u''' || colspan=2|{{IPA|/u/}}
|-
! ''au''<br />''(most words)''
| {{IPA|/aw/}} || '''au''' || colspan=2|{{IPA|/aw/}} || colspan=5|N/A
|-
|colspan="10"| <small><sup>1</sup></small> Traditional academic transcription in Romance studies.
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There was more variability in the result of the unstressed vowels. Originally in Proto-Romance, the same nine vowels developed in unstressed as stressed syllables, and in Sardinian, they coalesced into the same five vowels in the same way.
 
In Italo-Western Romance, however, vowels in unstressed syllables were significantly different from stressed vowels, with yet a third outcome for final unstressed syllables. In non-final unstressed syllables, the seven-vowel system of stressed syllables developed, but then the low-mid vowels {{IPA|/ɛ ɔ/}} merged into the high-mid vowels {{IPA|/e o/}}. This system is still preserved, largely or completely, in all of the conservative Romance languages (e.g. Italian, SpanishHispaniana, Portuguese, Catalan).
 
In final unstressed syllables, results were somewhat complex. One of the more difficult issues is the development of final short ''-u'', which appears to have been raised to {{IPA|/u/}} rather than lowered to {{IPA|/o/}}, as happened in all other syllables. However, it is possible that in reality, final {{IPA|/u/}} comes from ''long'' *''-ū'' < ''-um'', where original final ''-m'' caused vowel lengthening as well as nasalization. Evidence of this comes from [[Rhaeto-Romance]], in particular [[Sursilvan]], which preserves reflexes of both final ''-us'' and ''-um'', and where the latter, but not the former, triggers [[metaphony]] (see above). This suggests the development ''-us'' > {{IPA|/ʊs/}} > {{IPA|/os/}}, but ''-um'' > {{IPA|/ũː/}} > {{IPA|/u/}}.<ref>Note that the outcome of ''-am -em -om'' would be the same regardless of whether lengthening occurred, and that ''-im'' was already rare in Classical Latin, and appears to have barely survived in Proto-Romance. The only likely survival is in "-teen" numerals such as ''trēdecim'' "thirteen" > Italian ''tredici''. This favors the vowel-lengthening hypothesis ''-im'' > {{IPA|/ĩː/}} > {{IPA|/i/}}; but notice unexpected ''decem'' > Italian ''dieci'' (rather than expected ''*diece''). It is possible that ''dieci'' comes from *''decim'', which analogically replaced ''decem'' based on the ''-decim'' ending; but it is also possible that the final /i/ in ''dieci'' represents an irregular development of some other sort and that the process of analogy worked in the other direction.</ref>
 
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1" style="font-family:Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode; float:right; margin:1em;"
|+Examples of evolution of final unstressed vowels
! Ido !! Latino !! Proto-Italo-Western !! Conservative<br />Central Italian !! Italian !! SpanishHispaniana !! Catalan !! Old French
|-
| one (fem.) || ''ūnam'' || una || una || una || una || una || une
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The original five-vowel system in final unstressed syllables was preserved as-is in some of the more conservative central Italian languages, but in most languages there was further coalescence:
*In [[Tuscan dialect|Tuscan]] (including standard Italian), final /u/ merged into /o/.
*In the [[Western Romance languages]], final /i/ eventually merged into /e/ (although final /i/ triggered [[metaphony]] before that). Conservative languages like SpanishHispaniana largely maintain that system, but drop final /e/ after certain single consonants, e.g. /r/, /l/, /n/, /d/, /z/ (< palatalized ''c'').
*In the [[Gallo-Romance languages]] (part of Western Romance), final /o/ and /e/ were dropped entirely unless that produced an impossible final cluster (e.g. /tr/), in which case a "prop vowel" /e/ was added. This left only two final vowels: /a/ and prop vowel /e/. Catalan preserves this system.
*In primitive [[Old French]] (one of the [[Gallo-Romance languages]]), these two remaining vowels merged into {{IPA|/}}.
 
Various later changes happened in individual languages, e.g.:
*In French, most final consonants were dropped, and then final {{IPA|/}} was also dropped. The {{IPA|/}} is still preserved in spelling as a final silent ''-e'', whose main purpose is to signal that the previous consonant is pronounced, e.g. ''port'' "port" {{IPA|/pɔʁ/}} vs. ''porte'' "door" {{IPA|/pɔʁt/}}. These changes also eliminated the difference between singular and plural in most words: ''ports'' "ports" (still {{IPA|/pɔʁ/}}), ''portes'' "doors" (still {{IPA|/pɔʁt/}}). Final consonants reappear in [[liaison (French)|liaison]] contexts (in close connection with a following vowel-initial word), e.g. ''nous'' {{IPA|/nu/}} "we" vs. ''nous avons'' {{IPA|/nuz-aˈvɔ̃/}} "we have", ''il fait'' {{IPA|/il fɛ/}} "he does" vs. ''fait-il?" {{IPA|/fɛt-il/}} "does he?".
*In Catalan, final unstressed /as/ > /es/.
*In Portuguese, final unstressed /o/ and /u/ were apparently preserved intact for a while, since final unstressed /u/, but not /o/ or /os/, triggered [[metaphony]] (see above). Final-syllable unstressed /o/ was raised in preliterary times to /u/, but always still written ⟨o⟩. At some point (perhaps in late [[Old Portuguese]]), final-syllable unstressed /e/ was raised to /i/ (but still written ⟨e⟩); this remains in [[Brazilian Portuguese]], but has developed to {{IPA|/}} in [[European Portuguese]].
 
==== Morfo-sintaxala chanji ====
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La kazala sisteo esis '''drastically''' reduktita ek la sis-kazala sistemo dil Latino. Quankam quar kazi povas kontrustesar por Pra-Latinida nomi (nominativo, akuzativo, genitivo e dativo kombinita e vokativo), la vokativo esas marginala e prizentas en la Rumaniana (ube ol esus kompleta novigo), e por la restita kazi, ne plus di du esa prezentaprizenta en nula linguo. Romanian is the only modern Romance language with case marking on nouns, with a two-way opposition between nominative/accusative and genitive/dative. Some of the older [[Gallo-Romance languages]] (in particular, [[Old French]], [[Old Occitan]], [[Sursilvan dialects (Romansh)|Old Sursilvan]] and [[Friulian language|Old Friulian]], and in traces [[Catalan language|Old Catalan]] and [[Venetan language|Old Venetan]]) had an opposition between nominative and general oblique, and in Ibero-Romance languages, such as SpanishHispaniana and Portuguese, as well as in Italian (see under [[#Case|Case]]), a couple of examples are found which preserve the old nominative (though some of them may be influenced by Latin) and indicate that they formerly had this opposition, as well.<!-- Isn't the name SpanishHispaniana/Portuguese ''Carlos'', Catalan ''Carles'', French ''Charles'' a good example which preserves the old nominative form until the present day? -->
 
The system of multiple noun declensions was also dramatically reduced; most modern languages have only three types (masculine ''-o'', feminine ''-a'', and an ''-e'' that can be either gender). As in English, case is preserved better on pronouns than elsewhere, with some pronouns marked for as many as four cases (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive) plus additional possessive and [[disjunctive pronoun|disjunctive]] forms.
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Concomitant with the loss of cases, freedom of word order was greatly reduced. Classical Latin had a generally verb-final (SOV) but overall quite free word order, with a significant amount of [[scrambling (syntax)|word scrambling]] and mixing of [[left-branching]] and [[right-branching]] constructions. The Romance languages eliminated word scrambling and nearly all left-branching constructions, with most languages developing a rigid SVO, right-branching syntax. ([[Old French]], however, had a freer word order due to the two-case system still present, as well as a predominantly [[V2 word order|verb-second word order]] developed under the influence of the [[Germanic languages]].)
 
Some freedom, however, is allowed in the placement of adjectives relative to their head noun. In addition, some languages (e.g. SpanishHispaniana, Romanian) have an "accusative preposition" (Romanian ''pe'', SpanishHispaniana "personal ''a''") along with [[clitic doubling]], which allows for some freedom in ordering the arguments of a verb.
 
The Romance languages developed [[grammatical article]]s where Latin had none. Articles are often introduced around the time a robust case system falls apart in order to disambiguate the remaining case markers (which are usually too ambiguous by themselves) and to serve as parsing clues that signal the presence of a noun (a function formerly served by the case endings themselves).
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=== Basika traiti ===
Latinida lingui havas numero di kompartita traiti inter omna lingui:
* Latinida lingui esas modereme inflektita, c.e. ol existas modera komplexa sistemo di afixi (precipue sufixi) qui atachesas a paroli por expresar gramatikala informo kom numero, genero, persono, tempo, e.c. Verbi havas plu da inflexo kam nomi. The amount of ''[[synthetic language|synthesis]]'' is significantly more than [[English language|English]], but less than [[Classical Latin]] and much less than the oldest [[Indo-European languages]] (e.g. [[Ancient Greek]], [[Sanskrit]]). Inflection is [[fusional language|fusional]], with a single morpheme representing multiple features (as contrasted with [[agglutinative language]]s such as [[Turkish language|Turkish]] or [[Japanese language|Japanese]]). ForExemple example, PortuguesePortugalana ''amei'' "IMe lovedamis" is composedkompozesis ofdi ''am-'' "loveamo" and the fusional morpheme ''-ei'' "first person, singular, [[preterite tense]], indicative".
* Latinida lingualingui havas a pasable strikta [[subjekto-verbo-objekto]] parolo-ordino, kun predonimanta uzo di kapo-unesma konstrukti. Adjektivi, genitivi e relativa klauzi omna sequas olia nukleo, quankam (ecepte la [[Rumaniana linguo|Rumaniana]]) '''determiners''' uzuale precedas.
* In general, nouns, adjectives and [[determiner (linguistics)|determiner]]s inflect only according to [[grammatical gender]] (masculine or feminine) and [[grammatical number]] (singular or plural). [[Grammatical case]] is marked only on pronouns, as in English; case marking, as in English, is of the [[nominative–accusativenominative-accusative]] type (rather than e.g. the [[ergative–absolutiveergative-absolutive]] marking of [[Basque language|Basque]] or the [[split ergativity]] of [[Hindi language|Hindi]]). A significant exception, however, is [[Romanian language|RomanianRumaniana]], with two-case marking (nominative/accusative vs. genitive/dative) on nominal elements.
* Verbs are inflected according to a complex morphology that marks [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical number|number]] (singular or plural), [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical mood|mood]] (indicative, subjunctive, imperative), and sometimes [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] and/or [[grammatical gender|gender]]. [[Grammatical voice]] (active, passive, middle/reflexive) and some grammatical aspects (in particular, the [[perfect aspect]]) are expressed using [[periphrastic]] constructions.
* Most Romance languages are [[null subject language]]s (but modern French is not, as a result of the phonetic decay of verb endings).
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|-
![[Nasal stop|Nazalo]]
| || style="text-align:center;"|'''{{IPA|m}}'''
| ||
| ||
| || style="text-align:center;"|'''{{IPA|n}}'''
| ||
| || style="text-align:center;"|''{{IPA|ɲ}}''
| ||
|
|-
![[plosive consonant|Klusilo]]
| style="text-align:center;"|'''{{IPA|p}}''' || '''{{IPA|b}}'''
| ||
| ||
| style="text-align:center;"|'''{{IPA|t}}''' || '''{{IPA|d}}'''
| ||
| ||
| style="text-align:center;"|'''{{IPA|k}}''' || '''{{IPA|ɡ}}'''
|
|-
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| ||
| ||
| style="text-align:center;"|({{IPA|ts}}) || (({{IPA|dz}}))
| style="text-align:center;"|''{{IPA|tʃ}}'' || ({{IPA|dʒ}})
| ||
| ||
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![[fricative consonant|Frikativo]]
| ||
| style="text-align:center;"|'''{{IPA|f}}''' || ''{{IPA|v}}''
| style="text-align:center;"|(({{IPA|θ}})) ||
| style="text-align:center;"|'''{{IPA|s}}''' || ''{{IPA|z}}''
| style="text-align:center;"|''{{IPA|ʃ}}'' || ''{{IPA|ʒ}}''
| ||
| style="text-align:center;"|(({{IPA|x}})) ||
| style="text-align:center;"|(({{IPA|h}}))
|-
![[rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
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| ||
| ||
| || style="text-align:center;"|''{{IPA|ɾ,r}}''
| ||
| ||
| || ({{IPA|ʁ}})
|
|-
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| ||
| ||
| || style="text-align:center;"|'''{{IPA|l}}'''
| ||
| || style="text-align:center;"|({{IPA|ʎ}})
| ||
|
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| ||
| ||
| || style="text-align:center;"|'''{{IPA|j}}'''
| || style="text-align:center;"|'''{{IPA|w}}'''
|
|}
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Such nouns arose because of the identity of the Latin neuter singular ''-um'' with the masculine singular, and the identity of the Latin neuter plural ''-a'' with the feminine singular. A similar class exists in Italian, although it is no longer productive (e.g. ''il dito'' "the finger" vs. ''le dita'' "the fingers", ''l'uovo'' "the egg" vs. ''le uova'' "the eggs"). (A few isolated nouns in Latin had different genders in the singular and plural, but this was an unrelated phenomenon; this is similarly the case with a few French nouns, such as ''amour'', ''délice'', ''orgue''.)
 
SpanishHispaniana also has vestiges of the neuter in two demonstrative adjectives: ''eso'', ''aquello'' (both meaning "that [one]"), the pronoun ''ello'' (meaning "it") and the article ''lo'' (used to intensify adjectives).
 
====Case====
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{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin:10px"
|+ SpanishHispaniana pronoun inflections
! Case !! "I" !! "you"<br />(familiar sg.) !! "oneself" !! "he" !! "she" !! "we"
|-
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In all Romance languages, this system was drastically reduced. In most modern Romance languages, in fact, case is no longer marked at all on nouns, adjectives and determiners, and most forms are derived from the Latin accusative case. Much like English, however, case has survived somewhat better on pronouns.
 
Most pronouns have distinct nominative, accusative, genitive and possessive forms (cf. English "I, me, mine, my"). ManyMulta alsoaltra haveanke ahavas separateseparita dativedativa formformo, a ''[[disjunctive pronoun|disjunctive]]'' form used after prepositions, and (in some languages) a special form used with the preposition ''con'' "with" (a conservative feature inherited from Latin forms such as ''mēcum'', ''tēcum'', ''nobiscum'').
 
<br style="clear: both;"/>
{| class="wikitable" style="clear: left; float: right; margin:10px"
|+ SpanishHispaniana inflectional classes
! !! "boy" !! "girl" !! "man" !! "woman"
|-
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|}
 
The system of inflectional classes is also drastically reduced. The basic system is most clearly indicated in SpanishHispaniana, where there are only three classes, corresponding to the first, second and third declensions in Latin: plural in ''-as'' (feminine), plural in ''-os'' (masculine), plural in ''-es'' (either masculine or feminine). The singular endings exactly track the plural, except the singular ''-e'' is dropped after certain consonants.
 
The same system underlines many other modern Romance languages, such as Portuguese, French and Catalan. In these languages, however, further sound changes have resulted in various irregularities. In Portuguese, for exampleExemple, loss of /l/ and /n/ between vowels (with nasalization in the latter case) produces various irregular plurals (''nação - nações'' "nation(s)"; ''hotel - hotéis'' "hotel(s)").
 
In French and Catalan, loss of /o/ and /e/ in most unstressed final syllables has caused the ''-os'' and ''-es'' classes to merge. In French, merger of remaining /e/ with final /a/ into {{IPA|[ə]}}, and its subsequent loss, has completely obscured the original Romance system, and loss of final /s/ has caused most nouns to have identical pronunciation in singular and plural, although they are still marked differently in spelling (e.g. ''femme - femmes'' "woman - women", both pronounced {{IPA|/fam/}}).
 
<br style="clear: both;"/>
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Noun inflection has survived in Romanian somewhat better than elsewhere.<ref name="harris-vincent"/>{{rp|399}} Determiners are still marked for two cases (nominative/accusative and genitive/dative) in both singular and plural, and feminine singular nouns have separate endings for the two cases. In addition, there is a separate vocative case, and the combination of noun with a following [[clitic]] definite article produces a separate set of "definite" inflections for nouns.
 
The inflectional classes of Latin have also survived more in Romanian than elsewhere, e.g. ''om - oameni'' "man - men" (Latin ''homo'' - ''homines''); ''corp - corpuri'' "body - bodies" (Latin ''corpus'' - ''corpora''). (Many other exceptional forms, however, are due to later sound changes or analogy, e.g. ''casă - case'' "house(s)" vs. ''lună - luni'' "moon(s)"; ''frate - fraţi'' "brother(s)" vs. ''carte - cărţi'' "book(s)" vs. ''vale - văi'' "valley(s)".)
 
In Italian, the situation is somewhere in between SpanishHispaniana and Romanian. There are no case endings and relatively few classes, as in SpanishHispaniana, but noun endings are generally formed with vowels instead of /s/, as in Romanian: ''amico - amici'' "friend(s) (masc.)", ''amica - amiche'' "friend(s) (fem.)"; ''cane - cani'' "dog(s)". The masculine plural ''amici'' is thought to reflect the Latin nominative plural ''-ī'' rather than accusative plural ''-ōs'' (SpanishHispaniana ''-os''); however, the other plurals are thought to stem from special developments of Latin ''-ās'' and ''-ēs''.
 
<br style="clear: both;"/>
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin:10px"
|+Evolution of case in various Romance languages (Latin ''bonus'' "good")
! !! Case !! Latin !! SpanishHispaniana !! Old French<ref name="price"/>{{rp|100}} !! Old Sursilvan<ref name="harris-vincent"/>{{rp|367}} !! Romanian<ref name="harris-vincent"/>{{rp|402}}
|-
! rowspan=6|Masculine singular
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The oblique case in these languages generally inherits from the Latin accusative; as a result, masculine nouns have distinct endings in the two cases while most feminine nouns don't.
 
A number of different inflectional classes are still represented at this stage. For exampleExemple, the difference in the nominative case between masculine ''li voisins'' "the neighbor" and ''li pere'' "the father", and feminine ''la riens'' "the thing" vs. ''la fame'' "the woman", faithfully reflects the corresponding Latin inflectional differences (''vicīnus'' vs. ''pater'', ''fēmina'' vs. ''rēs'').
 
A number of synchronically quite irregular differences between nominative and oblique reflect direct inheritances of Latin third-declension nouns with two different stems (one for the nominative singular, one for all other forms), most with of which had a stress shift between nominative and the other forms: ''li ber - le baron'' "baron" (''<u>ba</u>rō'' - ''ba<u>rō</u>nem''); ''la suer - la seror'' "sister" (''<u>so</u>ror'' - ''so<u>rō</u>rem''); ''li prestre - le prevoire'' "priest" (''<u>pres</u>byter'' - ''pres<u>by</u>terem''); ''li sire - le seigneur'' "lord" (''<u>se</u>nior'' - ''se<u>niōr</u>em''); ''li enfes - l'enfant'' "child" (''<u>in</u>fāns'' - ''in<u>fan</u>tem'').<ref name="kibler">{{cite book|last1=Kibler |first1=William W. |title=An introduction to Old French |year=1984 |publisher=Modern Language Association of America |location=New York}}</ref>{{rp|36–3936-39}}
 
A few of these multi-stem nouns derive from Latin forms without stress shift, e.g. ''li om - le ome'' "man" (''<u>ho</u>mō'' - ''<u>ho</u>minem''). All of these multi-stem nouns refer to people; other nouns with stress shift in Latin (e.g. ''<u>a</u>mor'' - ''a<u>mō</u>rem'' "love") have not survived. Interestingly, some of the same nouns with multiple stems in [[Old French]] and/or [[Old Occitan]] have come down in Italian in the nominative rather than the accusative (e.g. ''uomo'' "man" < ''<u>ho</u>mō'', ''moglie'' "wife" < ''<u>mu</u>lier''), suggesting that a similar system existed in pre-literary Italian.
 
The modern situation in [[Sursilvan]] (one of the [[Rhaeto-Romance languages]]) is unique in that the original nominative/oblique distinction has been reinterpreted as a predicative/attributive distinction:<ref name="harris-vincent">{{cite book| title=The Romance Languages |last1=Harris |first1=Martin |last2=Vincent |first2=Nigel |year=1988 |location=London |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>{{rp|381}}
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*A two-way or three-way distinction among [[demonstrative]]s. Many languages have a three-way distinction of distance (near me, near you, near him) not paralleled in current English, but formerly present as "this/that/yon".
*[[Relative pronoun]]s and [[interrogative]]s, with the same forms used for both (similar to English "who" and "which").
*Various [[indefinite pronoun]]s and determiners (e.g. SpanishHispaniana ''algún'' "some", ''alguien'' "someone", ''algo'' "something"; ''ningún'' "no", ''nadie'' "no one"; ''todo'' "every"; ''cada'' "each"; ''mucho'' "much/many/a lot", ''poco'' "few/little"; ''otro'' "other/another"; etc.).
 
====Personal pronouns====
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The gender of the possessor needs to be made clear by a collocation such as French ''la voiture à lui/elle'', Portuguese ''o carro dele/dela'', literally "the car of him/her". (In spoken [[Brazilian Portuguese]], these collocations are the usual way of expressing the third-person possessive, since the former possessive ''seu carro'' now has the meaning "your car".)
 
The same demonstrative ''ille'' was borrowed to create the definite article (see below), which explains the similarity in form between personal pronoun and definite article. When the two are different, it is usually because of differing degrees of phonetic reduction. Generally, the personal pronoun is unreduced (beyond normal sound change), while the article has suffered various amounts of reduction, e.g. SpanishHispaniana ''ella'' "she" < ''illa'' vs. ''la'' "the (fem.)" < ''-la'' < ''illa''.
 
=====Clitic pronouns=====
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When a pronoun cannot serve as a clitic, a separate [[disjunctive pronoun|disjunctive]] form is used. These result from dative object pronouns pronounced with stress (which causes them to develop differently from the equivalent unstressed pronouns), or from subject pronouns.
 
Most Romance languages are [[null subject language]]s. The subject pronouns are used only for emphasis and take the stress, and as a result are not clitics. In French, however (as in [[Friulian language|Friulian]] and in some [[Gallo-Italian languages]] of northern Italy), verbal agreement marking has degraded to the point that subject pronouns have become mandatory, and have turned into clitics. These forms cannot be stressed, so for emphasis the disjunctive pronouns must be used in combination with the clitic subject forms. Friulian and the Gallo-Italian languages have actually gone further than this and merged the subject pronouns onto the verb as a new type of verb agreement marking, which must be present even when there is a subject noun phrase. (Some non-standard varieties of French treat [[disjunctive pronoun]]s as arguments and [[clitic|clitic pronouns]] as agreement markers.<ref>[[Henri Wittmann]]. {{PDFlink|[http://homepage.mac.com/noula/ling/1998a-fpparis.pdf "Le français de Paris dans le français des Amériques."]|52.1&nbsp;KB}}, ''Proceedings of the International Congress of Linguists'' 16.0416 (Paris, 20–2520-25 juillet 1997). Oxford: Pergamon (CD edition).</ref>)
 
===Verbala morfologio===
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Verbs have many [[grammatical conjugation|conjugations]], including in most languages:
* A [[present tense]], a [[preterite]], an [[imperfect]], a [[pluperfect]], a [[future tense]] and a [[future perfect]] in the indicative mood, for statements of fact.
* Present and preterite [[subjunctive]] tenses, for hypothetical or uncertain conditions. Several languages (for exampleExemple, Italian, Portuguese and SpanishHispaniana) have also imperfect and pluperfect subjunctives, although it is not unusual to have just one subjunctive equivalent for preterit and imperfect (e.g. no unique subjunctive equivalent in Italian of the so-called ''passato remoto''). Portuguese, and until recently SpanishHispaniana, also have future and future perfect subjunctives, which have no equivalent in Latin.
* An imperative mood, for direct commands.
* Three [[non-finite verb|non-finite forms]]: infinitive, gerund, and past participle.
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| dicere/dire || dice || disse || diceva || dica || dì
|-
| align=left | '''[[Judaeo-SpanishHispaniana|Judaeo-SpanishHispaniana (Ladino)]]'''
| dezir || dize || disho || dezía || diga || dezí
|-
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|-
| align=left | '''[[Picard language|Picard]]'''
| dire || dit || - || disoait || diche || -
|-
| align=left | '''[[Piedmontese language|Piedmontese]]'''
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|-
| align=left | '''[[Venetian language|Venetian]]'''
| dir || dise || - || disea || diga || dì/disi
|-
| align=left | '''[[Walloon language|Walloon]]'''
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* Owing to sound changes which made it [[homonym|homophonous]] with the preterite, the Latin future indicative tense was dropped, and replaced with a periphrasis of the form [[infinitive]] + present tense of ''habēre'' (to have). Eventually, this structure was [[grammaticalisation|reanalysed]] as a new [[future tense]].
* In a similar process, an entirely new [[Conditional mood#Romance languages|conditional form]] was created.
* While the synthetic [[grammatical voice|passive voice]] of classical Latin was abandoned in favour of [[periphrasis|periphrastic]] constructions, most of the active voice remained in use. However, several tenses have changed meaning, especially subjunctives. For exampleExemple:
** The Latin pluperfect indicative became a [[conditional mood|conditional]] in Sicilian, and an imperfect [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] in SpanishHispaniana.
** The Latin pluperfect subjunctive developed into an imperfect subjunctive in all languages except [[Romansh language|Romansh]], where it became a conditional, and Romanian, where it became a [[pluperfect|pluperfect indicative]].
** The Latin preterite subjunctive, together with the future perfect indicative, became a future subjunctive in Old SpanishHispaniana, Portuguese, and [[Galician language|Galician]].
** The Latin imperfect subjunctive became a personal [[infinitive]] in Portuguese and Galician.
* Many Romance languages have two [[copula (linguistics)|verbs "to be"]]. One is derived from Vulgar Latin *''essere'' < Latin ''esse'' "to be" with an admixture of forms derived from ''sedēre'' "to sit", and is used mostly for essential attributes; the other is derived from ''stāre'' "to stand", and mostly used for temporary states. This development is most notable in SpanishHispaniana, Portuguese and Catalan. In French, Italian and Romanian, the derivative of ''stāre'' largely preserved an earlier meaning of "to stand/to stay", although in modern Italian, ''stare'' is used in a few constructions where English would use "to be", as in ''sto bene'' "I am well". In [[Old French]], the derivatives of *''essere'' and ''stāre'' were ''estre'' and ''ester'', respectively. In modern French, ''estre'' persists as ''être'' "to be" while ''ester'' has been lost as a separate verb; but the former imperfect of ''ester'' is used as the modern imperfect of ''être'' (e.g. ''il était'' "he was"), replacing the irregular forms derived from Latin (e.g. ''ere(t), iere(t)'' < ''erat''). In Italian, the two verbs share the same past participle, ''stato''. ''sedēre'' persists most notably in the future of *''essere'' (e.g. SpanishHispaniana/Portuguese/French/etc. ''ser-'', Italian ''sar-''), although in [[Old French]] the future is a direct derivation from Latin, e.g. ''(i)ert'' "he will be" < ''erit''. See [[Romance copula]] for further information.
For a more detailed illustration of how the verbs have changed with respect to classical Latin, see [[Romance verbs]].
 
* During the [[Renaissance]], Italian, Portuguese, SpanishHispaniana and a few other Romance languages developed a [[progressive aspect]] which did not exist in Latin. In French, progressive constructions remain very limited, the [[imperfective|imperfect]] generally being preferred, as in Latin.
* Many Romance languages now have a verbal construction analogous to the [[present perfect]] of English. In some, it has taken the place of the old [[preterite]] (at least in the vernacular); in others, the two coexist with somewhat different meanings (cf. English ''I did'' vs. ''I have done''). A few examples:
** preterite only: Galician, Asturian, Sicilian, Leonese, Portuguese, some dialects of SpanishHispaniana;
** preterite and present perfect: Catalan, Occitan, standard SpanishHispaniana;
** present perfect predominant, preterite now literary: French, Romanian, several dialects of Italian and SpanishHispaniana.
** present perfect only: Romansh
 
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The following are common features of the Romance languages (inherited from [[Vulgar Latin]]) that are different from Classical Latin:
* Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.
* The normal clause structure is [[subject–verb–objectsubject-verb-object|SVO]], rather than [[subject–object–verbsubject-object-verb|SOV]], and is much less flexible than in Latin.
* Many Latin constructions involving nominalized verbal forms (e.g. the use of accusative plus infinitive in [[free indirect speech|indirect discourse]] and the use of the [[Latin grammar|ablative absolute]]) were dropped in favor of constructions with subordinate clause. ExceptionsEceptaji canpovas betrovesar founden inItaliana: Italian,exemple for example, LatinLatina ''tempore permittente'' > ItalianItaliana ''tempo permettendo''; L. ''hoc facto'' > I. ''ciò fatto''.
 
== Kauzi dil diverseso dil Latinida lingui ==
Naturala fonetikala evoluco dil lingui, a qua la Latina nature ne likis, explikas en lua majoritato la grava diferenci inter kelka Latinida lingui, A ta proceso anke adjuntas lexikala diverseso di quo nomesasnominesas Vulgara Latina: la grandeso di RomanaRoman Imperioimperio e absenso di literaturala e gramatikala normo rezultis en lokala linguo ne fixita. Tale singl areo di l'Impero uzis partikulara Vulgara Latino kom ja ante videsis, linguo preferinta dicar "casa" (en la Hispaniana, la Kataluniana, l'Italiana, la Portugalana e la Rumaniana) ed altra linguo preferinta la termo "mansio" (kom la Francia ''maison''). A ta du kauzi adjuntesas presenso di substrakti: lingui parlita komence en un areo e tegita di altra, lasanta kelka traiti en vortaro ed en gramatiko o en pronuncio en la linguo qua arivis. Tale, Galliana substrakto en la Franciana lasis 180 paroli ed esas l'origino dil chanjo ek la Latina /u/ al Francia /y/.
 
Naturale, influo dil Galliana ne limitis a [[Francia]], la [[Portugalana]] o la dialekti di Italia dil nord, exemple, prenias anke kekla termini. Egale ula ciencisti konsideras ke lingui qua servis di substrakto per ula Ibero-Latinida lingui esis la Baskiana o la Baskiano-Iberiana. La Baskiana eble aportis la chanjo di /f/ a /h/ en komenco di paroli en la Hispaniana e la Gaskoniana (Latine ''farina'' donacis ''harina'' en la Hispania ed ''haria'' en la Gaskoniana) ed paroli kom ''izquierda'' en la Hispaniana o ''esquerra'' en la Kataluniana (''ezker'' en la Baskiana). Altra subtrakti dil Latina en Katalunia esas la Kelta, di Indo-Europana tipo, ne kom la Baskiana.
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La [[Franciana]] e l'Ocitaniana havas multa paroli ek Germana lingui. Anke la Kataluniana e la Hispaniana havas Germana paroli ek la Gotiana en la kazo di ambi, ed anke ek la Franka en la kazo dil Kataluniana.
 
En la [[Hispaniana]] la superstrakto plu grava esas l'Arabiana: ek ta linguo provenas 4000 paroli, inter li toponimi ed kompozata vorti. La maxim grava karakteristiko esas la manteno quasi sistematikala di ArabianaArabian artiklo en la parolo, quankam en altra Latinida lingui qui prenis la sama parolo perdis lo. Tale okazas kun la Hispaniana vorto ''algodón'', ''cotó'' en la Kataluniana ed ''coton'' en l'Ocitaniana, qua provenas el l'Arabiana ''al quṭun''.
 
Fine, la [[Rumaniana]] prenis la vokativo dil Slava lingui, ula vorti ed procesi di palatalizado nesama en altra Latinida lingui.
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[[Arkivo:Linguistic_map_of_Italy.png|thumbnail|300px|right|thumb|Lingui di Italia: Galo-Italiana grupo esas verde, Centrala Italo-Latinida esas blue e la Siciliana esas bruna.]]
 
Latinida lingui klasifikas en plura grupi, ed singla povas kontenar multa dialekti. On mustar dicar ke elektado di unu di ca dialekto kom oficala linguo oebdias a politikala kauzi. Latinida lingui formasformacas kontino di numerosa lingui inter qua ulatempe minimi, ma ica listo nun montros la maxim konocata lingui:
 
* '''Sardiniana linguaro'''
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{{PA|Latin alfabeto}}
Latinida lingui por la maxim importanta parto havas retenita la skriburo sistemo di Latino, adaptanta lo a lua evoluciono.
Uno eceptajo esis RumanianaRumanian ante 19ma yarcento, ube pos la Romana retreto, kompreno esis riintroduktita tra [[Rumaniana kirila alfabeto]], slaviko influo. Kirila alfabeto esis anke uzita por Rumaniana (Moldovana) en [[Sovietia]]. La nekristana populi di Hispania anke uzita la skribaji di ta religii (mohameta e juda) por skribar Latinida lingui tale Ladino e Mozarabik en [[aljamiado]].
 
===Literi===
{|class="wikitable" style="float: right; text-align: center;"
|+Spelling of results of palatalization and related sounds
! Sound !! SpanishHispaniana !! Portuguese !! French !! Italian !! Romanian
|-
| /k/, not + ⟨e, i, y⟩ || colspan=5|⟨c⟩
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The Romance languages are written with the classical [[Latin alphabet]] of 23 letters&nbsp;- ''A'', ''B'', ''C'', ''D'', ''E'', ''F'', ''G'', ''H'', ''I'', ''K'', ''L'', ''M'', ''N'', ''O'', ''P'', ''Q'', ''R'', ''S'', ''T'', ''V'', ''X'', ''Y'', ''Z''&nbsp;- subsequently [[alphabets derived from the Latin|modified and augmented]] in various ways. In particular, the single Latin letter ''V'' split into ''V'' (consonant) and ''U'' (vowel), and the letter ''I'' split into ''I'' and ''J''. The Latin letter ''K'' and the new letter ''W'', which came to be widely used in Germanic languages, are seldom used in most Romance languages&nbsp;- mostly for unassimilated foreign names and words.
 
While most of the 23 basic Latin letters have maintained their phonetic value, for some of them it has diverged considerably; and the new letters added since the Middle Ages have been put to different uses in different scripts. Some letters, notably ''H'' and ''Q'', have been variously combined in [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] or [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraphs]] (see below) to represent phonetic phenomena that could not be recorded with the basic Latin alphabet, or to get around previously established spelling conventions. Most languages added auxiliary marks ([[diacritics]]) to some letters, for these and other purposes.
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The spelling rules of most Romance languages are fairly simple, but subject to considerable regional variation. The letters with most conspicuous phonetic variations, between Romance languages or with respect to Latin, are
 
:'''B, V''': Merged in SpanishHispaniana and most dialects of Catalan, where both letters are pronounced as either {{IPA|[b]}} or {{IPA|[β]}} (similar to ''v'') depending on position, with no relationship between sound and spelling.
:'''C''': Generally a "hard" {{IPA|[k]}}, but "soft" ([[fricative consonant|fricative]] or [[affricate consonant|affricate]]) before ''e'', ''i'', or ''y''.
:'''G''': Generally a "hard" {{IPA|[ɡ]}}, but "soft" (fricative or affricate) before ''e'', ''i'', or ''y''. In some languages, like SpanishHispaniana, the hard ''g'' is pronounced as a fricative {{IPA|[ɣ]}} after vowels. In Romansch, the soft ''g'' is a [[voiced palatal plosive]] {{IPA|[ɟ]}} or a voiced [[Alveolo-palatal consonant|alveolo-palatal]] affricate {{IPA|[dʑ]}}.
:'''H''': [[Silent letter|Silent]] in most languages; used to form various [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]]. But represents {{IPA|[h]}} in Romanian, Walloon and Gascon Occitan.
:'''J''': Represents a fricative in most languages, or the [[palatal approximant]] {{IPA|[j]}} in Romansh and in several of the languages of Italy. Italian does not use this letter in native words. Usually pronounced like the soft ''g'' (except in Romansch and the languages of Italy).
:'''Q''': As in Latin, its phonetic value is that of a hard ''c'', and in native words it is always followed by a (sometimes silent) ''u''. Romanian does not use this letter in native words.
:'''S''': Generally [[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]] {{IPA|[s]}}, but voiced {{IPA|[z]}} between vowels in most languages. In SpanishHispaniana, Romanian, Galician and several varieties of Italian, however, it is always pronounced voiceless. At the end of syllables, it may represent special [[allophone|allophonic]] pronunciations. In Romansh, it also stands for a voiceless or voiced fricative, {{IPA|[ʃ]}} or {{IPA|[ʒ]}}, before certain consonants.
:'''W''': No Romance language uses this letter in native words, with the exception of [[Walloon language|Walloon]].
:'''X''': Its pronunciation is rather variable, both between and within languages. In the Middle Ages, the [[Iberian languages|languages of Iberia]] used this letter to denote the [[voiceless postalveolar fricative]] {{IPA|[ʃ]}}, which is still the case in Modern [[Catalan language|Catalan]] and [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]]. With the Renaissance the classical pronunciation {{IPA|[ks]}}&nbsp;- or similar [[consonant cluster]]s, such as {{IPA|[ɡz]}}, {{IPA|[ɡs]}}, or {{IPA|[kθ]}}&nbsp;- were frequently reintroduced in [[latinism]]s and hellenisms. In [[Venetian language|Venetian]] it represents {{IPA|[z]}}, and in [[Ligurian language (Romance)|Ligurian]] the [[voiced postalveolar fricative]] {{IPA|[ʒ]}}. Italian does not use this letter in native words.
:'''Y''': This letter is not used in most languages, with the prominent exceptions of French and SpanishHispaniana, where it represents {{IPA|[j]}} before vowels (or various similar fricatives such as the [[Voiced palatal fricative|palatal fricative]] {{IPA|[ʝ]}}, in SpanishHispaniana), and the vowel or [[semivowel]] {{IPA|[i]}} elsewhere.
:'''Z''': In most languages it represents the sound {{IPA|[z]}}. However, in Italian it denotes the affricates {{IPA|[dz]}} and {{IPA|[ts]}} (which are two separate phonemes, but rarely contrast; among the few examples of minimal pairs are ''razza'' "ray" with {{IPA|[ddz]}}, ''razza'' "race" with {{IPA|[tts]}}); in Romansh the voiceless affricate {{IPA|[ts]}}; and in Galician and SpanishHispaniana it denotes either the [[voiceless dental fricative]] {{IPA|[θ]}} or {{IPA|[s]}}.
 
Otherwise, letters that are not combined as digraphs generally have the same sounds as in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA), whose design was, in fact, greatly influenced by the Romance spelling systems.
 
===Digraphs and trigraphs===
Since most Romance languages have more sounds than can be accommodated in the Roman Latin alphabet they all resort to the use of digraphs and trigraphs&nbsp;- combinations of two or three letters with a single sound value. The concept (but not the actual combinations) derives from Classical Latin; which used, for exampleExemple, ''TH'', ''PH'', and ''CH'' when transliterating the Greek letters "θ", "ϕ" (later "φ"), and "χ". These were once [[Aspiration (phonetics)|aspirated]] sounds in Greek before changing to corresponding fricatives, and the ''H'' represented what sounded to the Romans like an {{IPA|/}} following {{IPA|/t/}}, {{IPA|/p/}}, and {{IPA|/k/}} respectively. Some of the digraphs used in modern scripts are:<!--THIS TABLE SHOULD PERHAPS BE ORGANIZED BY SOUND RATHER THAN DIGRAPH?-->
 
:'''CI''': used in Italian, Romance languages in Italy and Romanian to represent {{IPA|/tʃ/}} before ''A'', ''O'', or ''U''.
:'''CH''': used in Italian, Romance languages in Italy, Romanian, Romansh and [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] to represent {{IPA|/k/}} before ''E'' or ''I''; {{IPA|/tʃ/}} in [[Occitan]], SpanishHispaniana, Astur-leonese and Galician; {{IPA|[c]}} or {{IPA|[tɕ]}} in Romansh before ''A'', ''O'' or ''U''; and {{IPA|/}} in most other languages. In Catalan it is used in some old spelling conventions for {{IPA|/k/}}.
:'''DD''': used in [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] and [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] to represent the [[voiced retroflex plosive]] {{IPA|/}}. In recent history more accurately transcribed as ''DDH''.
:'''DJ''': used in Walloon and Catalan for {{IPA|/dʒ/}}.
:'''GI''': used in Italian, Romance languages in Italy and Romanian to represent {{IPA|/dʒ/}} before ''A'', ''O'', or ''U'', and in Romansh to represent {{IPA|[ɟi]}} or {{IPA|/dʑi/}} or (before ''A'', ''E'', ''O'', and ''U'') {{IPA|[ɟ]}} or {{IPA|/dʑ/}}
:'''GH''': used in Italian, Romance languages in Italy, Romanian, Romansh and [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] to represent {{IPA|/}} before ''E'' or ''I'', and in Galician for the [[voiceless pharyngeal fricative]] {{IPA|/}} (not standard sound).
:'''GL''': used in Romansh before consonants and ''I'' and at the end of words for {{IPA|/}}.
:'''GLI''': used in Italian and Romansh for {{IPA|/}}.
:'''GN''': used in French, Italian, Romance languages in Italy and Romansh for {{IPA|/}}, as in ''champignon'' or ''gnocchi''.
:'''GU''': used before ''E'' or ''I'' to represent {{IPA|/}} or {{IPA|/}} in all Romance languages except Italian, Romance languages in Italy, Romansh, and Romanian (which use '''GH''' instead).
:'''IG''': used at the end of word in Catalan for {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, as in ''maig'', ''safareig'' or ''enmig''.
:'''IX''': used between vowels or at the end of word in Catalan for {{IPA|/}}, as in ''caixa'' or ''calaix''.
:'''LH''': used in Portuguese and Occitan {{IPA|/}}.
:'''LL''': used in SpanishHispaniana, Catalan, Galician, Astur-leonese, Norman and Dgèrnésiais, originally for {{IPA|/}} which has merged in some cases with {{IPA|/j/}}. Represents {{IPA|/l/}} in French unless it follows ''I'' (''i'') when it represents {{IPA|/j/}} (or {{IPA|/}} in some dialects). It's used in Occitan for a [[geminate consonant|long]] {{IPA|/ll/}}
:'''L·L''': used in Catalan for a geminate consonant {{IPA|[ɫɫ]}}.
:'''NH''': used in Portuguese and Occitan for {{IPA|/}}, used in official Galician for {{IPA|/}} .
:'''N-''': used in Piedmontese and Ligurian for {{IPA|/}} between two vowels.
:'''NN''': used in [[Leonese language|Leonese]] for {{IPA|/}},
:'''NY''': used in Catalan for {{IPA|/}}.
:'''QU''': represents {{IPA|[kw]}} in Italian, Romance languages in Italy, and Romansh; {{IPA|[k]}} in French, Astur-leonese and SpanishHispaniana (normally before ''e'' or ''i''); {{IPA|[k]}} (before ''e'' or ''i'') or {{IPA|[kw]}} (normally before ''a'' or ''o'') in Occitan, Catalan and Portuguese.
:'''RR''': used between vowels in several languages (Occitan, Catalan, SpanishHispaniana...) to denote a [[Trill consonant|trilled]] {{IPA|/r/}} or a [[guttural R]], instead of the [[Flap consonant|flap]] {{IPA|/}}.
:'''SC''': used before ''E'' or ''I'' in Italian and Romance languages in Italy for {{IPA|/}}, and in French, Portuguese, Catalan and American SpanishHispaniana as {{IPA|/s/}} in words of certain etymology (notice this would be {{IPA|/}} in standard peninsular SpanishHispaniana)
:'''SCH''': used in Romansh for {{IPA|[ʃ]}} or {{IPA|[ʒ]}}.
:'''SCI''': used in Italian and Romance languages in Italy to represent {{IPA|/}} before ''A'', ''O'', or ''U''.
:'''SH''': used in Aranese Occitan for {{IPA|/}}.
:'''SS''': used in French, Portuguese, Piedmontese, Romansh, Occitan, and Catalan for {{IPA|/s/}} between vowels.
:'''TS''': used in Catalan for {{IPA|/ts/}}.
:'''TG''': used in Romansh for {{IPA|[c]}} or {{IPA|[tɕ]}}. In Catalan is used for {{IPA|/dʒ/}} before ''E'' and ''I'', as in ''metge'' or ''fetge''.
:'''TH''': used in Jèrriais for {{IPA|/}}; used in Aranese for either {{IPA|/t/}} or {{IPA|/tʃ/}}.
:'''TJ''': used between vowels and before ''A'', ''O'' or ''U'', in Catalan for {{IPA|/dʒ/}}, as in ''sotjar'' or ''mitjó''.
:'''TSCH''': used in Romansh for {{IPA|[tʃ]}}.
:'''TX''': used at the beginning or at the end of word or between vowels in Catalan for {{IPA|/tʃ/}}, as in ''txec'', ''esquitx'' or ''atxa''.
:'''TZ''': used in Catalan for {{IPA|/dz/}}.
<!--MORE...-->
 
While the digraphs ''CH'', ''PH'', ''RH'' and ''TH'' were at one time used in many words of Greek origin, most languages have now replaced them with ''C/QU'', ''F'', ''R'' and ''T''. Only French has kept these [[etymology|etymological]] spellings, which now represent {{IPA|/k/}} or {{IPA|/}}, {{IPA|/f/}}, {{IPA|/}} and {{IPA|/t/}}, respectively.
 
====Double consonants====
[[Geminate consonant|Gemination]], in the languages where it occurs, is usually indicated by doubling the consonant, except when it does not contrast phonemically with the corresponding short consonant, in which case gemination is not indicated. In [[Jèrriais]], long consonants are marked with an apostrophe: ''S'S'' is a long {{IPA|/zz/}}, ''SS'S'' is a long {{IPA|/ss/}}, and ''T'T'' is a long {{IPA|/tt/}}. Phonemic contrast of geminates vs. single consonants is widespread in [[Italian language|Italian]], and normally indicated in the traditional orthography: ''fatto'' /fatto/ 'done' vs. ''fato'' /fato/ 'fate, destiny'; ''cadde'' /kadde/ 's/he, it fell' vs. ''cade'' /kade/ 's/he, it falls'. The double consonants in French orthography, however, are merely etymological. In Catalan, the gemination of the ''l'' is marked by a ''punt volat'' = ''flying point'' - ''l·l''.
 
===Diacritics===
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Romance languages also introduced various marks ([[diacritic]]s) that may be attached to some letters, for various purposes. In some cases, diacritics are used as an alternative to digraphs and trigraphs; namely to represent a larger number of sounds than would be possible with the basic alphabet, or to distinguish between sounds that were previously written the same. Diacritics are also used to mark word stress, to indicate exceptional pronunciation of letters in certain words, and to distinguish words with same pronunciation ([[homophone]]s).
 
Depending on the language, some letter-diacritic combinations may be considered distinct letters, e.g. for the purposes of [[Alphabetical order|lexical sorting]]. This is the case, for exampleExemple, of Romanian ''{{unicode|ș}}'' ({{IPA|[ʃ]}}) and SpanishHispaniana ''{{unicode|ñ}}'' ({{IPA|[ɲ]}}).
 
The following are the most common use of diacritics in Romance languages.
<!-- This should probably be limited to the most common functions of the Romance diacritics. Rarer values can be found in the particular articles about each language. -->
 
* '''Vowel quality''': the system of marking [[close-mid vowel]]s with an [[acute accent]], ''é'', and [[open-mid vowel]]s with a [[grave accent]], ''è'', is widely used (e.g. Catalan, French, Italian). Portuguese, however, uses the [[circumflex]] (''ê'') for the former, and the acute (''é''), for the latter. Some minority Romance languages use an [[umlaut (diacritic)|umlaut]] (diaeresis mark) in the case of ''ä, ö, ü'' to indicate fronted vowel variants, as in [[German language|German]]. Centralized vowels ({{IPA|/ɐ/, /ǝ/}} are indicated variously (''â'' in Portuguese, ''ă/î'' in Romanian, ''ë'' in [[Piedmontese language|Piedmontese]], etc.). In French, Occitan and Romanian, these accents are used whenever necessary to distinguish the appropriate vowel quality, but in the other languages, they are used only when it is necessary to mark unpredictable stress, or in some cases to distinguish homophones.
* '''Vowel length''': French uses a circumflex to indicate what was formerly a [[long vowel]] (although nowadays this rather indicates a difference in vowel quality, if it has any effect at all on pronunciation). This same usage is found in some minority languages.
* '''Nasality''': Portuguese marks [[nasal vowel]]s with a [[tilde]] (''ã'') when they occur before other written vowels and in some other instances.
* '''Palatalization''': some historical [[palatalization]]s are indicated with the [[cedilla]] (''ç'') in French, Catalan, Occitan and Portuguese. In SpanishHispaniana and several other world languages influenced by it, the grapheme ''[[ñ]]'' represents a [[palatal nasal]] consonant.
* '''Separate pronunciation''': when a vowel and another letter that would normally be combined into a [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] with a single sound are exceptionally pronounced apart, this is often indicated with a [[umlaut (diacritic)|diaeresis mark]] on the vowel. This is particularly common in the case of ''gü'' /gw/ before ''e'' or ''i'', because plain ''gu'' in this case would be pronounced /g/. This usage occurs in SpanishHispaniana, French, Catalan and Occitan, and formerly (prior to the 2009 spelling reform) in Brazilian Portuguese. French also uses the diaeresis on the second of two adjacent vowels to indicate that both are pronounced separately, as in ''Noël'' "Christmas'' and ''haïr'' "to hate".
* '''Stress''': the stressed vowel in a polysyllabic word may be indicated with an accent, when it cannot be predicted by rule. In Italian, Portuguese and Catalan, the choice of accent (acute, grave or circumflex) may depend on vowel quality. When no quality needs to be indicated, an acute accent is normally used (''ú''), but Italian and Romansh use a grave accent (''ù''). Portuguese puts a diacritic on all stressed monosyllables that end in ''a e o as es os'', to distinguish them from unstressed function words: ''chá'' "tea", ''más'' "bad (fem. pl.)", ''sé'' "seat (of government)", ''dê'' "give! (imperative)", ''mês'' "month", ''só'' "only", ''nós'' "we" (cf. ''mas'' "but", ''se'' "if/oneself", ''de'' "of", ''nos'' "us").
* '''Homophones''': words (especially monosyllables) that are pronounced exactly or nearly the same way and are spelled identically, but have different meanings, can be differentiated by a diacritic. Typically, if one of the pair is stressed and the other isn't, the stressed word gets the diacritic, using the appropriate diacritic for notating stressed syllables (see above). Portuguese does this consistently as part of notating stress in certain monosyllables, whether or not there is an unstressed homophone (see examples above). SpanishHispaniana also has many pairs of identically-pronounced words distinguished by an acute accent on the stressed word: ''si'' "if" vs. ''sí'' "yes", ''mas'' "but" vs. ''más'' "more", ''mi'' "my" vs. ''mí'' "me", ''se'' "oneself" vs. ''sé'' "I know", ''te'' "you (object)" vs. ''té'' "tea", ''que/quien/cuando/como'' "that/who/when/how" vs. ''qué/quién/cuándo/cómo'' "what?/who?/when?/how?", etc. Catalan has some pairs where both words are stressed, and one is distinguished by a vowel-quality diacritic, e.g. ''os'' "bone" vs. ''ós'' "bear". When no vowel-quality needs distinguishing, French and Catalan use a [[grave accent]] (which is otherwise unused in the languages): French ''ou'' "or" vs. ''où'' "where", French ''la'' "the" vs. "là'' "there", Catalan ''ma'' "my" vs. ''mà'' "hand".
 
===Upper and lower case===
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| [[Emilian language|Emilian]] || ''(Lē) la sèra sèmpar sù la fnèstra prima ad snàr.''
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| [[Extremadurana linguo|Extremadurana linguo]] || ''(Ella) afecha siempri la ventanaventan antis de cenal.''
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| [[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]] || ''(Le) sarre toltin/tojor la fenétra avan de goutâ/dinar/sopar.''
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| [[Italiana linguo|Italian]] || ''(Ella/Lei) chiude sempre la finestra prima di cenare.''
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| [[Judaeo-SpanishHispaniana language|Judaeo-SpanishHispaniana]] || ''Eya serra syempre la ventanaventan antes de senar.''
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| [[Ladina linguo|Ladin]] || ''(Ëra) stlüj dagnora la finestra impröma de cenè.'' (badiot) ''(Ëila) stluj for l viere dan maië da cëina'' (gherdëina)
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| [[Portugalana linguo|Portuguese]] || ''Ela fecha sempre a janela antes de jantar/cear.''
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| [[Rumaniana linguo|RomanianRumaniana]] || ''Ea închide totdeauna fereastra înainte de a cina.''
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| [[Romancha linguo|Romansh]] || ''Ella clauda/serra adina la fanestra avant ch'ella tschainia.''
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| [[Sicliana linguo|Sicilian]] || ''Idda chiui sempri la finestra prima di pistiari/manciari.''
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| [[Hispaniana linguo|SpanishHispaniana]] || ''(Ella) siempre cierra la ventana antes de cenar.''
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| [[Central Italian|Umbrian]] || ''Essa chjude sempre la finestra prima de cena'.''