Latinida linguo: Diferi inter la revizi
Kontenajo efacita Kontenajo adjuntita
kelka korektigi |
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| style="vertical-align: top; padding-left: 0.5em;" |ISO 639-3||roa
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|colspan=2 style="text-align: center; padding-bottom: 0.5em;"| {{#ifexist: File:IE countries.svg | [[
[[Franciana linguo|<span style="background-color:#0000FF;color:white;"> Franciana </span>]]
[[Hispaniana linguo|<span style="background-color:#00B927;color:white;"> Hispaniana </span>]]
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{{revizo}}
'''Latinida linguo''' esas omna
La Latinida lingui developis ek la Latina inter la 6ma e la 9ma yarcenti. Hodie, li havas plu di 800 milioni di nativa parolanti, precipue en Europa ed Amerika ed anke havas granda numero di ne-nativa parolanti e granda uzo kom helpolinguo. Pro la nefacileso por distingar inter linguo e dialekto, hodie ne esas konocata la nombro di Latinida lingui ma la standard akonti nombras 25 (quankam la nombro esas plu granda).
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==
[[Arkivo:Romance 20c en.png|right|350px|thumb|
La Latinida lingui
La teritorio ube
== Historio ==
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On datas proxim l'evoluciono di populala latina vers la Latinida lingui tale:
# inter [[200 aK]] e [[400]] : diferanta formi influeso da lokala ante,
# [[
# poka pose [[800]]: lua existi esas agnoskar ([[Tours-sinodo]]) e ye 842 unesma texto en protofranca, Strasbourg-juri.
==== Ek klasika Latina a vulgara Latina ====
Tra longa proceso qua komencis longatempe ante nun e, dependanta dil regiono, en diferanta epoki (precipue ek la 4ma yarcento e pose kontinuis til la 10ma yarcento), dil renkontro tra la Latina difundita per la Romani en politikala, kulturala ed etnala nivelo (to esas, la rezulto dil migrado dil koloniisti di lingua Latina o latinigita) kun la diversa lingui uzita per populacioni dil
Komence ol esis kontaminado dil Latino parolita dal Romana funcioneri, dal soldati e dal merkanti qui vivis en certa provinco, per lingui (preske omna Kelti) parlita en la regiono di l’indijena populaciono. Latino parolita per ta Romani, tanta de regionala perspektivo (to esas, dil provinco di origino, kun ne-evitabla diferenci di acento e vorti, derivita dil proceso di latinigado plu o min intensa di ta provinco) kam de kulturala perspektivo (la soldati ne parolis kulta linguo kom la funcionari dil stato). Tala kontaminaciono ne esis decisiva nam l’Imperio restis unita kom politikala uniono pro la granda kulturala influo pro la granda cultura influo: la provo esas la transvivo di poka Keltida paroli en la Latinida lingui.
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L'unesm atesto dil termino ''romana'' (''romana linguo'', di qua la termino ''romanza'', en senso di ''romanida'' o ''linguo derivata ek la Latino''), aperas en la [[Konsilio di Tours (813)]], dum qua '''durante il quale così ci si riferisce alla lingua comunemente parlata all'epoca in [[Gallia]], in opposizione alla lingua germanica parlata dai Franchi invasori.'''
La ''Serment de Strasbourg'' o ''[[Juro di Strasbourg]]'' ([[842]]) esas identifikata kom l'unesma oficala dokumento en qua uzesas ancestro dil [[Franciana linguo|Frenciana]] (e dil [[
Inter la rara dokumenti in pra-Franciana linguo (iniciala fazo dil pazo ek la Latina a prekoca formo dil Franciana) esas gravas la ''[[Glossario di Reichnau]], redaktita en la 9ma yarcento (880) ed
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Tra i rari documenti pervenuti della lingua protofrancese, (fase iniziale del passaggio dal latino ad una forma precoce di francese) è rilevante il [[Glossario di Reichnau]], redatto nel IX sec (880 d.C.) '''ed avente varie colonne riguardanti lemmi latini e loro definizioni, insieme ad altre concernenti le lingue dell'area francese.'''
L'unesma oficala dokumento qua arivis til hodie qua atestas l'uzado dil vulgaro en Italia esas la ''[[placito capuano]]'', dil [[960]] (quankam ol existas precedanta atesti qui, sine oficialesa valoro, atestas la distanco kun la Latina ja en la 8ma yarcento,
Sono del X secolo le [[Glosse silensi]] e le [[Glosse emilianensi]], più antiche testimonianze esplicite dell'esistenza dell'antico [[
Risale invece a poco prima del 1175 il più antico documento del volgare [[Lingua portoghese|portoghese]] pervenutoci: si tratta di una sorta di patto di non aggressione tra due fratelli, Gomes Pais e Ramiro Pais, recentemente scoperto dal ricercatore José António Souto. Prima di tale scoperta si reputavano più antichi alcuni testi con datazione oscillante tra il [[1192]] e il [[XIII secolo]], come l'''Auto de Partilhas'' e la ''Notícia de Torto''.
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:'''6. ''pridem non pride.'''''
:Ica lasta exemplo (la listo ne esas exhaustiva) montras ke /m/ al fino di parolo ne prononcis (quo ja okazis en Klasika Latina: Latina verso montras to). Ta silencado esas, inter altri, l'origino dil disaparo dil flexioni; Latinida lingui ne uzas, fakte, ja latina deklinadi ed uzas preposizioni qua naskis kom auxiliara sistemo e
Ica listo ne esas exhaustiva ed esus necesara abordar la questiono dil ''pan-Latinida'' diftongado (qua konocas omna Latinida lingui) ed signalar qua numero di vokalis naskis kam konsequo di duesma diftongadi.
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! ''ī''
|long ''i'' ||
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! ''ȳ''
|long ''y'' ||
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! ''i (ĭ)''
|short ''i''||
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! ''y (y̆)''
|short ''y'' ||
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! ''ē''
|long ''e'' ||
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! ''œ''
|''oe'' ||
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! ''e (ĕ)''
|short ''e''||
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! ''æ''
|''ae'' ||
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! ''ā''
|long ''a'' ||
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! ''a (ă)''
|short ''a''||
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! ''o (ŏ)''
|short ''o''||
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! ''ō''
|long ''o'' ||
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! ''au''<br />''(a few words)''
|''au'' ||
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! ''u (ŭ)''
|short ''u'' ||
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! ''ū''
|long ''u'' ||
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! ''au''<br />''(most words)''
|''au'' || colspan=2
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|colspan="9"| <small><sup>1</sup></small> Traditional academic transcription in Latin and Romance studies, respectively.
|}
One profound change that affected Vulgar Latin was the reorganisation of its [[vowel]] system. Classical Latin had five short vowels, ''ă, ĕ, ĭ, ŏ, ŭ'', and five [[vowel length|long vowels]], ''ā, ē, ī, ō, ū'', each of which was an individual [[phoneme]] (see the table in the right, for their likely pronunciation in IPA), and four [[diphthong]]s, ''ae'', ''oe'', ''au'' and ''eu'' (five according to some authors, including ''ui''). There were also long and short versions of ''y'', representing the [[Close front rounded vowel|rounded vowel]]
There is evidence that in the imperial period all the short vowels except ''a'' differed by quality as well as by length from their long counterparts.<ref>Allen (2003) states: "There appears to have been no great difference in quality between long and short ''a'', but in the case of the close and mid vowels (''i'' and ''u'', ''e'' and ''o'') the long appear to have been appreciably closer than the short." He then goes on to the historical development, quotations from various authors (from around the second century AD), as well as evidence from older inscriptions where "e" stands for normally short ''i'', and "i" for long ''e'', etc.</ref>
During the Proto-Romance period, phonemic length distinctions were lost. Vowels came to be automatically pronounced long in stressed, [[open syllable]]s (i.e. when followed by only one consonant), and pronounced short everywhere else. This situation is still maintained in modern Italian: ''cade''
The Proto-Romance loss of phonemic length originally produced a system with nine different quality distinctions in monophthongs, where only original
*The simplest outcome was in [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]],<ref>Technically, Sardinian is one of the [[Southern Romance languages]]. The same vowel outcome occurred in a small strip running across southern Italy (the ''Lausberg Zone''), and is thought to have formerly occurred in the Romance languages of northern Africa.</ref> where the former long and short vowels in Latin simply coalesced, e.g.
*In most areas, however (technically, the [[Italo-Western languages]]), the near-close vowels
*In the [[Eastern Romance languages]] (particularly, [[Romanian language|
*[[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] is sometimes described as having its own distinct vowel system. In fact, Sicilian passed through the same developments as the main bulk of Italo-Western languages. Subsequently, however, high-mid vowels (but not low-mid vowels) were raised in all syllables, stressed and unstressed; i.e.
The Proto-Romance allophonic vowel-length system was rephonemicized in the [[Gallo-Romance languages]] as a result of the loss of many final vowels. Some northern Italian languages (e.g. [[Friulan language|Friulan]]) still maintain this secondary phonemic length, but most languages dropped it by either diphthongizing or shortening the new long vowels.
French phonemicized a third vowel system around AD 1300 as a result of the sound change /VsC/ > /VhC/ >
======Front-rounded vowels======
Characteristic of the [[Gallo-Romance languages]] and [[Rhaeto-Romance languages]] are the [[front rounded vowel]]s
=====Unstressed vowels=====
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! ''a,ā''
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! ''e,ae''
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! ''ē,oe''
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! ''i,y''
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! ''ī,ȳ''
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! ''o''
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! ''ō,(au)''
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! ''u''
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! ''ū''
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! ''au''<br />''(most words)''
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|colspan="10"| <small><sup>1</sup></small> Traditional academic transcription in Romance studies.
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There was more variability in the result of the unstressed vowels. Originally in Proto-Romance, the same nine vowels developed in unstressed as stressed syllables, and in Sardinian, they coalesced into the same five vowels in the same way.
In Italo-Western Romance, however, vowels in unstressed syllables were significantly different from stressed vowels, with yet a third outcome for final unstressed syllables. In non-final unstressed syllables, the seven-vowel system of stressed syllables developed, but then the low-mid vowels
In final unstressed syllables, results were somewhat complex. One of the more difficult issues is the development of final short ''-u'', which appears to have been raised to
{| class="wikitable" cellspacing="1" style="font-family:Arial Unicode MS, Lucida Sans Unicode; float:right; margin:1em;"
|+Examples of evolution of final unstressed vowels
! Ido !! Latino !! Proto-Italo-Western !! Conservative<br />Central Italian !! Italian !!
|-
| one (fem.) || ''ūnam'' || una || una || una || una || una || une
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The original five-vowel system in final unstressed syllables was preserved as-is in some of the more conservative central Italian languages, but in most languages there was further coalescence:
*In [[Tuscan dialect|Tuscan]] (including standard Italian), final /u/ merged into /o/.
*In the [[Western Romance languages]], final /i/ eventually merged into /e/ (although final /i/ triggered [[metaphony]] before that). Conservative languages like
*In the [[Gallo-Romance languages]] (part of Western Romance), final /o/ and /e/ were dropped entirely unless that produced an impossible final cluster (e.g. /tr/), in which case a "prop vowel" /e/ was added. This left only two final vowels: /a/ and prop vowel /e/. Catalan preserves this system.
*In primitive [[Old French]] (one of the [[Gallo-Romance languages]]), these two remaining vowels merged into
Various later changes happened in individual languages, e.g.:
*In French, most final consonants were dropped, and then final
*In Catalan, final unstressed /as/ > /es/.
*In Portuguese, final unstressed /o/ and /u/ were apparently preserved intact for a while, since final unstressed /u/, but not /o/ or /os/, triggered [[metaphony]] (see above). Final-syllable unstressed /o/ was raised in preliterary times to /u/, but always still written ⟨o⟩. At some point (perhaps in late [[Old Portuguese]]), final-syllable unstressed /e/ was raised to /i/ (but still written ⟨e⟩); this remains in [[Brazilian Portuguese]], but has developed to
==== Morfo-sintaxala chanji ====
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La kazala sisteo esis '''drastically''' reduktita ek la sis-kazala sistemo dil Latino. Quankam quar kazi povas kontrustesar por Pra-Latinida nomi (nominativo, akuzativo, genitivo e dativo kombinita e vokativo), la vokativo esas marginala e prizentas en la Rumaniana (ube ol esus kompleta novigo), e por la restita kazi, ne plus di du esa
The system of multiple noun declensions was also dramatically reduced; most modern languages have only three types (masculine ''-o'', feminine ''-a'', and an ''-e'' that can be either gender). As in English, case is preserved better on pronouns than elsewhere, with some pronouns marked for as many as four cases (nominative, accusative, dative, genitive) plus additional possessive and [[disjunctive pronoun|disjunctive]] forms.
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Concomitant with the loss of cases, freedom of word order was greatly reduced. Classical Latin had a generally verb-final (SOV) but overall quite free word order, with a significant amount of [[scrambling (syntax)|word scrambling]] and mixing of [[left-branching]] and [[right-branching]] constructions. The Romance languages eliminated word scrambling and nearly all left-branching constructions, with most languages developing a rigid SVO, right-branching syntax. ([[Old French]], however, had a freer word order due to the two-case system still present, as well as a predominantly [[V2 word order|verb-second word order]] developed under the influence of the [[Germanic languages]].)
Some freedom, however, is allowed in the placement of adjectives relative to their head noun. In addition, some languages (e.g.
The Romance languages developed [[grammatical article]]s where Latin had none. Articles are often introduced around the time a robust case system falls apart in order to disambiguate the remaining case markers (which are usually too ambiguous by themselves) and to serve as parsing clues that signal the presence of a noun (a function formerly served by the case endings themselves).
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=== Basika traiti ===
Latinida lingui havas numero di kompartita traiti inter omna lingui:
* Latinida lingui esas modereme inflektita, c.e. ol existas modera komplexa sistemo di afixi (precipue sufixi) qui atachesas a paroli por expresar gramatikala informo kom numero, genero, persono, tempo, e.c. Verbi havas plu da inflexo kam nomi. The amount of ''[[synthetic language|synthesis]]'' is significantly more than [[English language|English]], but less than [[Classical Latin]] and much less than the oldest [[Indo-European languages]] (e.g. [[Ancient Greek]], [[Sanskrit]]). Inflection is [[fusional language|fusional]], with a single morpheme representing multiple features (as contrasted with [[agglutinative language]]s such as [[Turkish language|Turkish]] or [[Japanese language|Japanese]]).
* Latinida
* In general, nouns, adjectives and [[determiner (linguistics)|determiner]]s inflect only according to [[grammatical gender]] (masculine or feminine) and [[grammatical number]] (singular or plural). [[Grammatical case]] is marked only on pronouns, as in English; case marking, as in English, is of the [[
* Verbs are inflected according to a complex morphology that marks [[grammatical person|person]], [[grammatical number|number]] (singular or plural), [[grammatical tense|tense]], [[grammatical mood|mood]] (indicative, subjunctive, imperative), and sometimes [[grammatical aspect|aspect]] and/or [[grammatical gender|gender]]. [[Grammatical voice]] (active, passive, middle/reflexive) and some grammatical aspects (in particular, the [[perfect aspect]]) are expressed using [[periphrastic]] constructions.
* Most Romance languages are [[null subject language]]s (but modern French is not, as a result of the phonetic decay of verb endings).
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![[Nasal stop|Nazalo]]
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![[plosive consonant|Klusilo]]
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![[fricative consonant|Frikativo]]
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![[rhotic consonant|Rhotic]]
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Such nouns arose because of the identity of the Latin neuter singular ''-um'' with the masculine singular, and the identity of the Latin neuter plural ''-a'' with the feminine singular. A similar class exists in Italian, although it is no longer productive (e.g. ''il dito'' "the finger" vs. ''le dita'' "the fingers", ''l'uovo'' "the egg" vs. ''le uova'' "the eggs"). (A few isolated nouns in Latin had different genders in the singular and plural, but this was an unrelated phenomenon; this is similarly the case with a few French nouns, such as ''amour'', ''délice'', ''orgue''.)
====Case====
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{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin:10px"
|+
! Case !! "I" !! "you"<br />(familiar sg.) !! "oneself" !! "he" !! "she" !! "we"
|-
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In all Romance languages, this system was drastically reduced. In most modern Romance languages, in fact, case is no longer marked at all on nouns, adjectives and determiners, and most forms are derived from the Latin accusative case. Much like English, however, case has survived somewhat better on pronouns.
Most pronouns have distinct nominative, accusative, genitive and possessive forms (cf. English "I, me, mine, my").
<br style="clear: both;"/>
{| class="wikitable" style="clear: left; float: right; margin:10px"
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! !! "boy" !! "girl" !! "man" !! "woman"
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|}
The system of inflectional classes is also drastically reduced. The basic system is most clearly indicated in
The same system underlines many other modern Romance languages, such as Portuguese, French and Catalan. In these languages, however, further sound changes have resulted in various irregularities. In Portuguese,
In French and Catalan, loss of /o/ and /e/ in most unstressed final syllables has caused the ''-os'' and ''-es'' classes to merge. In French, merger of remaining /e/ with final /a/ into
<br style="clear: both;"/>
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Noun inflection has survived in Romanian somewhat better than elsewhere.<ref name="harris-vincent"/>{{rp|399}} Determiners are still marked for two cases (nominative/accusative and genitive/dative) in both singular and plural, and feminine singular nouns have separate endings for the two cases. In addition, there is a separate vocative case, and the combination of noun with a following [[clitic]] definite article produces a separate set of "definite" inflections for nouns.
The inflectional classes of Latin have also survived more in Romanian than elsewhere, e.g. ''om
In Italian, the situation is somewhere in between
<br style="clear: both;"/>
{| class="wikitable" style="float: right; margin:10px"
|+Evolution of case in various Romance languages (Latin ''bonus'' "good")
! !! Case !! Latin !!
|-
! rowspan=6|Masculine singular
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The oblique case in these languages generally inherits from the Latin accusative; as a result, masculine nouns have distinct endings in the two cases while most feminine nouns don't.
A number of different inflectional classes are still represented at this stage.
A number of synchronically quite irregular differences between nominative and oblique reflect direct inheritances of Latin third-declension nouns with two different stems (one for the nominative singular, one for all other forms), most with of which had a stress shift between nominative and the other forms: ''li ber
A few of these multi-stem nouns derive from Latin forms without stress shift, e.g. ''li om
The modern situation in [[Sursilvan]] (one of the [[Rhaeto-Romance languages]]) is unique in that the original nominative/oblique distinction has been reinterpreted as a predicative/attributive distinction:<ref name="harris-vincent">{{cite book| title=The Romance Languages |last1=Harris |first1=Martin |last2=Vincent |first2=Nigel |year=1988 |location=London |publisher=Routledge}}</ref>{{rp|381}}
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*A two-way or three-way distinction among [[demonstrative]]s. Many languages have a three-way distinction of distance (near me, near you, near him) not paralleled in current English, but formerly present as "this/that/yon".
*[[Relative pronoun]]s and [[interrogative]]s, with the same forms used for both (similar to English "who" and "which").
*Various [[indefinite pronoun]]s and determiners (e.g.
====Personal pronouns====
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The gender of the possessor needs to be made clear by a collocation such as French ''la voiture à lui/elle'', Portuguese ''o carro dele/dela'', literally "the car of him/her". (In spoken [[Brazilian Portuguese]], these collocations are the usual way of expressing the third-person possessive, since the former possessive ''seu carro'' now has the meaning "your car".)
The same demonstrative ''ille'' was borrowed to create the definite article (see below), which explains the similarity in form between personal pronoun and definite article. When the two are different, it is usually because of differing degrees of phonetic reduction. Generally, the personal pronoun is unreduced (beyond normal sound change), while the article has suffered various amounts of reduction, e.g.
=====Clitic pronouns=====
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When a pronoun cannot serve as a clitic, a separate [[disjunctive pronoun|disjunctive]] form is used. These result from dative object pronouns pronounced with stress (which causes them to develop differently from the equivalent unstressed pronouns), or from subject pronouns.
Most Romance languages are [[null subject language]]s. The subject pronouns are used only for emphasis and take the stress, and as a result are not clitics. In French, however (as in [[Friulian language|Friulian]] and in some [[Gallo-Italian languages]] of northern Italy), verbal agreement marking has degraded to the point that subject pronouns have become mandatory, and have turned into clitics. These forms cannot be stressed, so for emphasis the disjunctive pronouns must be used in combination with the clitic subject forms. Friulian and the Gallo-Italian languages have actually gone further than this and merged the subject pronouns onto the verb as a new type of verb agreement marking, which must be present even when there is a subject noun phrase. (Some non-standard varieties of French treat [[disjunctive pronoun]]s as arguments and [[clitic|clitic pronouns]] as agreement markers.<ref>[[Henri Wittmann]]. {{PDFlink|[http://homepage.mac.com/noula/ling/1998a-fpparis.pdf "Le français de Paris dans le français des Amériques."]|52.1 KB}}, ''Proceedings of the International Congress of Linguists'' 16.0416 (Paris,
===Verbala morfologio===
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Verbs have many [[grammatical conjugation|conjugations]], including in most languages:
* A [[present tense]], a [[preterite]], an [[imperfect]], a [[pluperfect]], a [[future tense]] and a [[future perfect]] in the indicative mood, for statements of fact.
* Present and preterite [[subjunctive]] tenses, for hypothetical or uncertain conditions. Several languages (
* An imperative mood, for direct commands.
* Three [[non-finite verb|non-finite forms]]: infinitive, gerund, and past participle.
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| dicere/dire || dice || disse || diceva || dica || dì
|-
| align=left | '''[[Judaeo-
| dezir || dize || disho || dezía || diga || dezí
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| align=left | '''[[Picard language|Picard]]'''
| dire || dit ||
|-
| align=left | '''[[Piedmontese language|Piedmontese]]'''
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|-
| align=left | '''[[Venetian language|Venetian]]'''
| dir || dise ||
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| align=left | '''[[Walloon language|Walloon]]'''
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* Owing to sound changes which made it [[homonym|homophonous]] with the preterite, the Latin future indicative tense was dropped, and replaced with a periphrasis of the form [[infinitive]] + present tense of ''habēre'' (to have). Eventually, this structure was [[grammaticalisation|reanalysed]] as a new [[future tense]].
* In a similar process, an entirely new [[Conditional mood#Romance languages|conditional form]] was created.
* While the synthetic [[grammatical voice|passive voice]] of classical Latin was abandoned in favour of [[periphrasis|periphrastic]] constructions, most of the active voice remained in use. However, several tenses have changed meaning, especially subjunctives.
** The Latin pluperfect indicative became a [[conditional mood|conditional]] in Sicilian, and an imperfect [[subjunctive mood|subjunctive]] in
** The Latin pluperfect subjunctive developed into an imperfect subjunctive in all languages except [[Romansh language|Romansh]], where it became a conditional, and Romanian, where it became a [[pluperfect|pluperfect indicative]].
** The Latin preterite subjunctive, together with the future perfect indicative, became a future subjunctive in Old
** The Latin imperfect subjunctive became a personal [[infinitive]] in Portuguese and Galician.
* Many Romance languages have two [[copula (linguistics)|verbs "to be"]]. One is derived from Vulgar Latin *''essere'' < Latin ''esse'' "to be" with an admixture of forms derived from ''sedēre'' "to sit", and is used mostly for essential attributes; the other is derived from ''stāre'' "to stand", and mostly used for temporary states. This development is most notable in
For a more detailed illustration of how the verbs have changed with respect to classical Latin, see [[Romance verbs]].
* During the [[Renaissance]], Italian, Portuguese,
* Many Romance languages now have a verbal construction analogous to the [[present perfect]] of English. In some, it has taken the place of the old [[preterite]] (at least in the vernacular); in others, the two coexist with somewhat different meanings (cf. English ''I did'' vs. ''I have done''). A few examples:
** preterite only: Galician, Asturian, Sicilian, Leonese, Portuguese, some dialects of
** preterite and present perfect: Catalan, Occitan, standard
** present perfect predominant, preterite now literary: French, Romanian, several dialects of Italian and
** present perfect only: Romansh
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The following are common features of the Romance languages (inherited from [[Vulgar Latin]]) that are different from Classical Latin:
* Adjectives generally follow the noun they modify.
* The normal clause structure is [[
* Many Latin constructions involving nominalized verbal forms (e.g. the use of accusative plus infinitive in [[free indirect speech|indirect discourse]] and the use of the [[Latin grammar|ablative absolute]]) were dropped in favor of constructions with subordinate clause.
== Kauzi dil diverseso dil Latinida lingui ==
Naturala fonetikala evoluco dil lingui, a qua la Latina nature ne likis, explikas en lua majoritato la grava diferenci inter kelka Latinida lingui, A ta proceso anke adjuntas lexikala diverseso di quo
Naturale, influo dil Galliana ne limitis a [[Francia]], la [[Portugalana]] o la dialekti di Italia dil nord, exemple, prenias anke kekla termini. Egale ula ciencisti konsideras ke lingui qua servis di substrakto per ula Ibero-Latinida lingui esis la Baskiana o la Baskiano-Iberiana. La Baskiana eble aportis la chanjo di /f/ a /h/ en komenco di paroli en la Hispaniana e la Gaskoniana (Latine ''farina'' donacis ''harina'' en la Hispania ed ''haria'' en la Gaskoniana) ed paroli kom ''izquierda'' en la Hispaniana o ''esquerra'' en la Kataluniana (''ezker'' en la Baskiana). Altra subtrakti dil Latina en Katalunia esas la Kelta, di Indo-Europana tipo, ne kom la Baskiana.
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La [[Franciana]] e l'Ocitaniana havas multa paroli ek Germana lingui. Anke la Kataluniana e la Hispaniana havas Germana paroli ek la Gotiana en la kazo di ambi, ed anke ek la Franka en la kazo dil Kataluniana.
En la [[Hispaniana]] la superstrakto plu grava esas l'Arabiana: ek ta linguo provenas 4000 paroli, inter li toponimi ed kompozata vorti. La maxim grava karakteristiko esas la manteno quasi sistematikala di
Fine, la [[Rumaniana]] prenis la vokativo dil Slava lingui, ula vorti ed procesi di palatalizado nesama en altra Latinida lingui.
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[[Arkivo:Linguistic_map_of_Italy.png|thumbnail|300px|right|thumb|Lingui di Italia: Galo-Italiana grupo esas verde, Centrala Italo-Latinida esas blue e la Siciliana esas bruna.]]
Latinida lingui klasifikas en plura grupi, ed singla povas kontenar multa dialekti. On mustar dicar ke elektado di unu di ca dialekto kom oficala linguo oebdias a politikala kauzi. Latinida lingui
* '''Sardiniana linguaro'''
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{{PA|Latin alfabeto}}
Latinida lingui por la maxim importanta parto havas retenita la skriburo sistemo di Latino, adaptanta lo a lua evoluciono.
Uno eceptajo esis
===Literi===
{|class="wikitable" style="float: right; text-align: center;"
|+Spelling of results of palatalization and related sounds
! Sound !!
|-
| /k/, not + ⟨e, i, y⟩ || colspan=5|⟨c⟩
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|}
The Romance languages are written with the classical [[Latin alphabet]] of 23 letters
While most of the 23 basic Latin letters have maintained their phonetic value, for some of them it has diverged considerably; and the new letters added since the Middle Ages have been put to different uses in different scripts. Some letters, notably ''H'' and ''Q'', have been variously combined in [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]] or [[trigraph (orthography)|trigraphs]] (see below) to represent phonetic phenomena that could not be recorded with the basic Latin alphabet, or to get around previously established spelling conventions. Most languages added auxiliary marks ([[diacritics]]) to some letters, for these and other purposes.
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The spelling rules of most Romance languages are fairly simple, but subject to considerable regional variation. The letters with most conspicuous phonetic variations, between Romance languages or with respect to Latin, are
:'''B, V''': Merged in
:'''C''': Generally a "hard"
:'''G''': Generally a "hard"
:'''H''': [[Silent letter|Silent]] in most languages; used to form various [[digraph (orthography)|digraphs]]. But represents
:'''J''': Represents a fricative in most languages, or the [[palatal approximant]]
:'''Q''': As in Latin, its phonetic value is that of a hard ''c'', and in native words it is always followed by a (sometimes silent) ''u''. Romanian does not use this letter in native words.
:'''S''': Generally [[Voice (phonetics)|voiceless]]
:'''W''': No Romance language uses this letter in native words, with the exception of [[Walloon language|Walloon]].
:'''X''': Its pronunciation is rather variable, both between and within languages. In the Middle Ages, the [[Iberian languages|languages of Iberia]] used this letter to denote the [[voiceless postalveolar fricative]]
:'''Y''': This letter is not used in most languages, with the prominent exceptions of French and
:'''Z''': In most languages it represents the sound
Otherwise, letters that are not combined as digraphs generally have the same sounds as in the [[International Phonetic Alphabet]] (IPA), whose design was, in fact, greatly influenced by the Romance spelling systems.
===Digraphs and trigraphs===
Since most Romance languages have more sounds than can be accommodated in the Roman Latin alphabet they all resort to the use of digraphs and trigraphs
:'''CI''': used in Italian, Romance languages in Italy and Romanian to represent
:'''CH''': used in Italian, Romance languages in Italy, Romanian, Romansh and [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] to represent
:'''DD''': used in [[Sicilian language|Sicilian]] and [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] to represent the [[voiced retroflex plosive]]
:'''DJ''': used in Walloon and Catalan for
:'''GI''': used in Italian, Romance languages in Italy and Romanian to represent
:'''GH''': used in Italian, Romance languages in Italy, Romanian, Romansh and [[Sardinian language|Sardinian]] to represent
:'''GL''': used in Romansh before consonants and ''I'' and at the end of words for
:'''GLI''': used in Italian and Romansh for
:'''GN''': used in French, Italian, Romance languages in Italy and Romansh for
:'''GU''': used before ''E'' or ''I'' to represent
:'''IG''': used at the end of word in Catalan for
:'''IX''': used between vowels or at the end of word in Catalan for
:'''LH''': used in Portuguese and Occitan
:'''LL''': used in
:'''L·L''': used in Catalan for a geminate consonant
:'''NH''': used in Portuguese and Occitan for
:'''N-''': used in Piedmontese and Ligurian for
:'''NN''': used in [[Leonese language|Leonese]] for
:'''NY''': used in Catalan for
:'''QU''': represents
:'''RR''': used between vowels in several languages (Occitan, Catalan,
:'''SC''': used before ''E'' or ''I'' in Italian and Romance languages in Italy for
:'''SCH''': used in Romansh for
:'''SCI''': used in Italian and Romance languages in Italy to represent
:'''SH''': used in Aranese Occitan for
:'''SS''': used in French, Portuguese, Piedmontese, Romansh, Occitan, and Catalan for
:'''TS''': used in Catalan for
:'''TG''': used in Romansh for
:'''TH''': used in Jèrriais for
:'''TJ''': used between vowels and before ''A'', ''O'' or ''U'', in Catalan for
:'''TSCH''': used in Romansh for
:'''TX''': used at the beginning or at the end of word or between vowels in Catalan for
:'''TZ''': used in Catalan for
<!--MORE...-->
While the digraphs ''CH'', ''PH'', ''RH'' and ''TH'' were at one time used in many words of Greek origin, most languages have now replaced them with ''C/QU'', ''F'', ''R'' and ''T''. Only French has kept these [[etymology|etymological]] spellings, which now represent
====Double consonants====
[[Geminate consonant|Gemination]], in the languages where it occurs, is usually indicated by doubling the consonant, except when it does not contrast phonemically with the corresponding short consonant, in which case gemination is not indicated. In [[Jèrriais]], long consonants are marked with an apostrophe: ''S'S'' is a long
===Diacritics===
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Romance languages also introduced various marks ([[diacritic]]s) that may be attached to some letters, for various purposes. In some cases, diacritics are used as an alternative to digraphs and trigraphs; namely to represent a larger number of sounds than would be possible with the basic alphabet, or to distinguish between sounds that were previously written the same. Diacritics are also used to mark word stress, to indicate exceptional pronunciation of letters in certain words, and to distinguish words with same pronunciation ([[homophone]]s).
Depending on the language, some letter-diacritic combinations may be considered distinct letters, e.g. for the purposes of [[Alphabetical order|lexical sorting]]. This is the case,
The following are the most common use of diacritics in Romance languages.
<!-- This should probably be limited to the most common functions of the Romance diacritics. Rarer values can be found in the particular articles about each language. -->
* '''Vowel quality''': the system of marking [[close-mid vowel]]s with an [[acute accent]], ''é'', and [[open-mid vowel]]s with a [[grave accent]], ''è'', is widely used (e.g. Catalan, French, Italian). Portuguese, however, uses the [[circumflex]] (''ê'') for the former, and the acute (''é''), for the latter. Some minority Romance languages use an [[umlaut (diacritic)|umlaut]] (diaeresis mark) in the case of ''ä, ö, ü'' to indicate fronted vowel variants, as in [[German language|German]]. Centralized vowels (
* '''Vowel length''': French uses a circumflex to indicate what was formerly a [[long vowel]] (although nowadays this rather indicates a difference in vowel quality, if it has any effect at all on pronunciation). This same usage is found in some minority languages.
* '''Nasality''': Portuguese marks [[nasal vowel]]s with a [[tilde]] (''ã'') when they occur before other written vowels and in some other instances.
* '''Palatalization''': some historical [[palatalization]]s are indicated with the [[cedilla]] (''ç'') in French, Catalan, Occitan and Portuguese. In
* '''Separate pronunciation''': when a vowel and another letter that would normally be combined into a [[digraph (orthography)|digraph]] with a single sound are exceptionally pronounced apart, this is often indicated with a [[umlaut (diacritic)|diaeresis mark]] on the vowel. This is particularly common in the case of ''gü'' /gw/ before ''e'' or ''i'', because plain ''gu'' in this case would be pronounced /g/. This usage occurs in
* '''Stress''': the stressed vowel in a polysyllabic word may be indicated with an accent, when it cannot be predicted by rule. In Italian, Portuguese and Catalan, the choice of accent (acute, grave or circumflex) may depend on vowel quality. When no quality needs to be indicated, an acute accent is normally used (''ú''), but Italian and Romansh use a grave accent (''ù''). Portuguese puts a diacritic on all stressed monosyllables that end in ''a e o as es os'', to distinguish them from unstressed function words: ''chá'' "tea", ''más'' "bad (fem. pl.)", ''sé'' "seat (of government)", ''dê'' "give! (imperative)", ''mês'' "month", ''só'' "only", ''nós'' "we" (cf. ''mas'' "but", ''se'' "if/oneself", ''de'' "of", ''nos'' "us").
* '''Homophones''': words (especially monosyllables) that are pronounced exactly or nearly the same way and are spelled identically, but have different meanings, can be differentiated by a diacritic. Typically, if one of the pair is stressed and the other isn't, the stressed word gets the diacritic, using the appropriate diacritic for notating stressed syllables (see above). Portuguese does this consistently as part of notating stress in certain monosyllables, whether or not there is an unstressed homophone (see examples above).
===Upper and lower case===
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| [[Emilian language|Emilian]] || ''(Lē) la sèra sèmpar sù la fnèstra prima ad snàr.''
|-
| [[Extremadurana linguo|Extremadurana linguo]] || ''(Ella) afecha siempri la
|-
| [[Franco-Provençal language|Franco-Provençal]] || ''(Le) sarre toltin/tojor la fenétra avan de goutâ/dinar/sopar.''
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| [[Italiana linguo|Italian]] || ''(Ella/Lei) chiude sempre la finestra prima di cenare.''
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| [[Judaeo-
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| [[Ladina linguo|Ladin]] || ''(Ëra) stlüj dagnora la finestra impröma de cenè.'' (badiot) ''(Ëila) stluj for l viere dan maië da cëina'' (gherdëina)
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| [[Portugalana linguo|Portuguese]] || ''Ela fecha sempre a janela antes de jantar/cear.''
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| [[Rumaniana linguo|
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| [[Romancha linguo|Romansh]] || ''Ella clauda/serra adina la fanestra avant ch'ella tschainia.''
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| [[Sicliana linguo|Sicilian]] || ''Idda chiui sempri la finestra prima di pistiari/manciari.''
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| [[Hispaniana linguo|
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| [[Central Italian|Umbrian]] || ''Essa chjude sempre la finestra prima de cena'.''
|